Kristkirken i Nidaros : Domkirken i Trondhjem, under bygning, forfald og gjenreisning. Kirkens historie og kirkebygningens beskrivelse.

Mode of access: Internet.

La consolidació de la propietat pagesa a Catalunya (el Baix Empordà, 1850-1940)

Aquesta tesi estudia algunes de les transformacions agràries enregistrades en un àmbit comarcal (la comarca catalana del Baix Empordà) entre mitjan segle XIX i mitjan segle XX. EI fil conductor és la distribució de la propietat del sol agrícola. Però per a la seva comprensió es considera necessari integrar moltes altres variables. EI treball també es proposa assajar alguns procediments metodològics poc habituals en l'anàlisi de la distribució de la propietat del sòl agrícola i la seva evolució en època contemporània. Com a hipòtesi central, es sosté que, al Baix Empordà i al llarg del període comprès entre 1850 i 1940, els canvis que varen produir-se en l'estructura de la propietat i, també, en I'estructura social rural, varen apuntar genèricament a favor dels grups pagesos. En particular, es sosté : ( I) Que la situació de partida (de mitjan segle XIX) ja es caracteritzava per un notable pes de la petita propietat pagesa sobre I'estructura de la propietat agrícola i sobre el conjunt del sistema agrari. (2) Que, amb posterioritat a la crisi agrària finisecular, els problemes de rendibilitat de la producció agrària i l'erosió soferta per alguns mecanismes d'extracció de renda varen tendir a allunyar els sectors rendistes que tradicionalment havien exercit la seva hegemonia -econòmica i social- en la societat rural. (3) I, finalment, que al llarg del període va produir-se un avenç de la propietat pagesa com a conseqüència del fet que una porció significativa de famílies pageses aconseguissin ampliar el seu patrimoni territorial a través de compres realitzades en el mercat de terres, alhora que un nombre significatiu de vells grans patrimonis es fraccionava i desfeia. La magnitud d'aquests canvis va ser moderada i no va pas estar exempta d'ambigüitats, però posa de relleu la capacitat de resistència i adequació de l'explotació pagesa a les condicions d'un capitalisme evolvent, malgrat els pronòstics en sentit contrari de molts teòrics. La tesi està articulada en dues parts. En la primera es duu a terme una descripció detallada de les característiques del sistema agrari baixempordanès de mitjan segle XIX amb l'objectiu final de determinar el significat econòmic de les terres posseïdes per cada patrimoni familiar (més enllà de la simple consideració de les superfícies). EI primer pas consisteix en l'anàlisi dels usos del sòl, dels conreus principals i la seva ordenació en rotacions, dels rendiments físics, de les practiques de reposició de la fertilitat i de la dotació ramadera. A continuació es descriuen les tècniques i el procés de treball agrari amb l'objectiu de formular un model d'organització del treball agrícola que permeti mesurar les exigències en treball d'aquesta activitat. Es conclou que, des de la perspectiva de l'ocupació i de la demanda de treball generades pel sistema agrari, les localitats rurals es caracteritzaven per un fort excedent de mà d'obra en relació a les demandes laborals dels conreus tant des d'una perspectiva macroeconòmica com microeconòmica. EI tercer capítol es centra en l'avaluació de les necessitats de consum i reproducció de les UFP. Les estimacions realitzades permeten proposar un model flexible, que és contrastat amb els ingressos potencialment obtenibles per cada patrimoni. S'arriba a la conclusió que només una ínfima part de la població arribava a obtenir, amb l'explotació directa del seu patrimoni, l'ingrés necessari per a la seva reproducció econòmica simple. Paral·lelament però, es posa de relleu la importància econòmica i social dels petits patrimonis pagesos. S'estima que entorn una mitjana del 45% del sòl agrícola estava posseït per aquest segment de propietaris i, en el quart capítol, s'estudien les implicacions d'aquest fet. EI retrat de la situació de partida finalitza amb l'estudi dels règims de no-propietat predominants a la comarca. En la segona part, aquesta visió estàtica deixa pas a una anàlisi dinàmica. A mitjan segle XIX, al Baix Empordà, s'estava arribant a la fi d'una llarga etapa expansiva iniciada una centúria abans. Els primers signes d'esgotament varen ser la intensa pèrdua de població rural entre 1860 i 1880, la paralització de l'expansió dels conreus i el fort desenvolupament de la industria surera, eix del nou motor econòmic comarcal. Amb posterioritat a 1860 els canvis en l'estructura distributiva de la propietat varen tendir a apuntar cap a la consolidació de la propietat pagesa. Es va produir un procés de transferència de terres des dels sectors rendistes cap a sectors pagesos que va realitzar-se a través de compravendes en el mercat de la terra més que a través d'establiments i subestabliments emfitèutics. Va tenir com a conseqüència última el retrocés dels vells patrimonis rendistes, que, en general, no varen ser substituïts per l'aparició de nous grans patrimonis, com havia pogut passar fins aleshores. Paral·lelament, un bon nombre d'unitats familiars rurals també varen anar abandonant el camp i les seves propietats, produint-se una altra línia de transferència de terres entre sectors pagesos. La depreciació sostinguda dels preus agrícoles, la caiguda de la renda agrària, la superior rendibilitat de les inversions en valors mobiliaris i la incidència d'una creixent conflictivitat agrària són els factors que es destaquen per explicar la reculada dels grans patrimonis territorials. Des de la perspectiva pagesa es proposen tres elements explicatius per interpretar el procés d'acumulació patrimonial observat en un determinat segment de població: (1) el manteniment d'estratègies de producció per a l'autoconsum (un aspecte sempre polèmic i de difícil demostració); (2) l'existència d'un flux important d'ingressos salarials i extra-agrícoles en la composició de l'ingrés familiar pagès; i (3) el canvi en les orientacions tècniques i productives de les explotacions pageses. La combinació dels tres, alhora que hauria limitat els efectes directes dels moviments dels preus agraris, hauria possibilitat l'estratègia acumulativa observada.

The story of soil conservation in the South Carolina Piedmont, 1800-1860 /

"The greater part of the material used was selected from the files of the Work Projects Administration Erosion history project, 701-2-240, Columbia, S.C."--Foot-note, p. 1.

[Pamphlets on the Catholic Church : 1836-1940]

Title supplied by the University of California.

The life and public services of Hon. Abraham Lincoln : with a portrait on steel, to which is added a biographical sketch of Hon. Hannibal Hamlin /

Early history -- In Congress -- The great senatorial contest -- The convention and its nominations -- Speeches -- Sketch of the life of Hon. Hannibal Hamlin -- Letters of acceptance.

Sisustaminen on kuin käsialaa : Carin Bryggman ja Lasse Ollinkari sisustusarkkitehdin ammatissa 1940- ja 1950-luvulla

"Interior Design is Like Handwriting." Carin Bryggman and Lasse Ollinkari as Interior Designers in the 1940s and 1950s My dissertation deals with the emergence of the interior designer's profession in Finland with focus on the 1940s and 1950s, the postwar years of reconstruction and modernism, as the historical context. The topic is addressed at both the collective and individual levels. Specific subjects of study are the training of interior designers (also known as interior architects), the association of Finnish interior architects (Sisustusarkkitehdit SIO), the professional field and its public image and two leading designers, Carin Bryggman (1920 1993) and Lasse Ollinkari (1921 1993). Though respected figures within the field, Bryggman and Ollinkari have otherwise remained little known and studied. My study presents a great deal of new empiria. The main materials consist of the documents of related institutions and the archives of Bryggman and Ollinkari, in which drawings and photographs figure prominently. The drawings illustrate in a new way the variety of professional tasks in the field. My results are also based on a large body of interviewed material. The materials are approached from two theoretical perspectives, with gender and margins as core concepts from the perspective of women's studies. The even gender division of Finnish interior designers revealed a difference with regard to neighbouring occupations and other countries. I claim that the division of tasks was not defined by gender. The second theoretical basis is the sociological study of professions. The high professional status achieved by interior designers is shown by the fact that of the many related titles in Finnish and Swedish, such as "furniture draughtsman" or "interior artist", interior architect became the established one, despite opposition from architects. My hypothesis that the professionalization of interior designers took place during the two postwar decades proved to be correct. The profession emerged through specialized education and became established with the founding of its own professional organization. From the outset, the goal was to mark a distinction between professionals of interior and furniture design and other designers and architects. Interior designers became a strong and successful modern professional group, involved in a wide range of projects from objects to interiors. Keywords: interior designers, interior architects, interior art, occupations, gender, professions, interior design, furniture, home, public space, Carin Bryggman, Lasse Ollinkari, the Sisustusarkkitehdit SIO association, 1940s and 1950s, reconstruction, modernism.

Kirjan tie lukijalle : Kirjakauppojen vakiintuminen Suomessa 1740 - 1860

Books Paths to Readers describes the history of the origins and consolidation of modern and open book stores in Finland 1740 1860. The thesis approaches the book trade as a part of a print culture. Instead of literary studies choice to concentrate on texts and writers, book history seeks to describe the print culture of a society and how the literary activities and societies interconnect. For book historians, printed works are creations of various individuals and groups: writers, printers, editors, book sellers, censors, critics and finally, readers. They all take part in the creation, delivery and interpretation of printed works. The study reveals the ways selling and distributing books have influenced the printed works and the literary and print culture. The research period 1740 1860 covers the so-called second revolution of the book, or the modernisation of the print culture. The thesis describes the history of 60 book stores and their 96 owners. The study concentrates on three themes: firstly, how the particular book trade network became a central institution for printed works distribution, secondly what were the relations between cosmopolitan European book markets and the national cultural sphere, and thirdly how book stores functioned as cultural institutions and business enterprises. Book stores that have a varied assortment and are targeted to all readers became the main institution for book trade in Finland during 1740 1860. It happened because of three features. First, the book binders monopoly on selling bound copies in Sweden was abolished in 1740s. As a consequence entrepreneurs could concentrate solely to trade activities and offer copies from various publishers at their stores. Secondly the common business model of bartering was replaced by selling copies for cash, first in the German book trade centre Leipzig in 1770s. The change intensified book markets activities and Finnish book stores foreign connections. Thirdly, after Finland was annexed to the Russian empire in 1809, the Grand duchy s administration steered foreign book trade to book stores (because of censorship demands). Up to 1830 s book stores were available only in Helsinki and Turku. During next ten years book stores opened in six regional centres. The early entrepreneurs ran usually vertical businesses consisting of printing, publishing and distribution activities. This strategy lowered costs, eased the delivery of printed works and helped to create elaborated centres for all book activities. These book stores main clientele consisted of the Swedish speaking gentry. During late 1840s various opinion leaders called for the development of a national Finnish print culture, and also book stores. As a result, during the five years before the beginning of the Crimean war (1853 1856) book stores were opened in almost all Finnish towns: at the beginning of the war 36 book stores operated in 21 towns. The later book sellers, mainly functioning in small towns among Finnish speaking people, settled usually strictly for selling activities. Book stores received most of their revenues from selling foreign titles. Swedish, German, French and Belgian (pirate editions of popular French novels) books were widely available for the multilingual gentry. Foreign titles and copies brought in most of the revenues. Censorship inspections or unfavourable custom fees would not limit the imports. Even if the local Finnish print production steadily rose, many copies, even titles, were never delivered via book stores. Only during the 1840 s and 1850 s the most advanced publishers would concentrate on creating publishing programmes and delivering their titles via book stores. Book sellers regulated commissions were small. They got even smaller because of large amounts of unsold copies, various and usual misunderstandings of consignments and accounts or plain accidents that destroyed shipments and warehouses. Also, the cultural aim of a creating large and assortments and the tendency of short selling periods demanded professional entrepreneurship, which many small town book sellers however lacked. In the midst of troublesome business efforts, co-operation and mutual concern of the book market s entrepreneurs were the key elements of the trade, although on local level book sellers would compete, sometimes even ferociously. The difficult circumstances (new censorship decree of 1850, Crimean war) and lack of entrepreneurship, experience and customers meant that half of the book stores opened in 1845 1860 was shut in less than five years. In 1858 the few leading publishers established The Finnish Book Publishers Association. Its first task was to create new business rules and manners for the book trade. The association s activities began to professionalise the whole network, but at the same time the earlier independence of regional publishing and selling enterprises diminished greatly. The consolidation of modern and open book store network in Finland is a history of a slow and complex development without clear signs of a beginning or an end. The ideal book store model was rarely accomplished in its all features. Nevertheless, book stores became the norm of the book trade. They managed to offer larger selections, reached larger clienteles and maintained constant activity better than any other book distribution model. In essential, the book stores methods have not changed up to present times.

Makt, konst, elit - konstfältets positioner, relationer och resurser i 1940- och 1950-talens Helsingfors

The dissertation examines the power mechanisms and institutional power hierarchies of the 1940s-1950s era arts elite in Helsinki and their influence on issues of taste in the visual arts. For the purposes of this study, the elite is understood to consist mainly of the board members of the principal elected bodies in the field of the arts. The theoretical framework employed is based on Pierre Bourdieu s field theory and the network perspective. The author has examined what the key, pervasive valuations were that governed the exercising of power by the arts elite in issues of taste, involving determination of who was an acknowledged artist and what was good art. The dissertation demonstrates that this exercising of power was governed by certain collective practices which maintained the illusion that the exercising of power was democratic and based on artistic quality. These practices were the corporate system, using artistic arguments in issues of taste, and using networks in the exercising of power. The struggle in the field of the arts was about who ultimately was entitled to define the value of contemporary art; the issue did not arise regarding historical art. Artists managed to gain a leading position as gatekeepers in issues regarding contemporary art. The author discusses a number of conflicts in the field of the arts that highlight the institutional hierarchies and the capital held by the various players. The structural changes that occurred in administration in the field of cultural production in the 1950s led to the separation of bureaucratic competence on the one hand and aesthetic competence on the other. There was a hierarchy in the field of the arts between institutions, between instruments of legitimisation, and between the symbolic and social capital of players in the field. The hierarchy in the arts ultimately depended on how well the elite could influence tastes through the instruments at their disposal. The various instruments of legitimisation grants, purchases, etc. were ranked differently in the evaluation of acknowledged artists and good art. The dissertation discusses what values, in the form of types of symbolic capital, the arts elite embraced and what role these played in the elite s exercising of power, with particular focus on gender, language, region and economic capital. The aesthetic capital of an artist was of only minor importance in the exercising of power by the arts elite. The dissertation further discusses the points of contact between the arts elite and players in other fields, such as the economic, media and consumer fields. When the arts elite, through the Academy of Fine Arts, became an active player in the art market, this led to a hierarchy where the division between acknowledged and not-acknowledged galleries became sharper.

Kansakunnan parhaaksi. : Suomalaiset naisten- ja lastensairaalat 1920 1940-luvulla arkkitehtonisena, lääketieteellisenä ja yhteiskunnallisena suunnittelukohteena

This dissertation addresses the modernization process of Finnish hospital architecture between the First and Second World War, with focus on facilities explicitly designed for women and children, which as special hospitals reflect specialization, a distinct feature of the modern era. The facilities considered in the study are the Salus hospital, Dr. Länsimäki s women s hospital, the Folkhälsan in Svenska Finland association s child-care institute, the Helsinki Women s Clinic, the Viipuri Women s Hospital, the Helsinki Children s Clinic and the Children's Castle (Lastenlinna) in Helsinki. The study considers hospital architecture as an architectural, medical and social object of design. The theoretical starting point and perspective are the views of the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault (1925 1983) concerning the relationship of bio-power and architecture. Underlying the construction of health-care facilities for women and children were not only the desire to help but also issues of population policy, social policies, training and professionalization. In this study, hospital architecture is interpreted as reflecting developments in medicine, while also producing and reinforcing discourses associated with the ideologies of the time of design and construction. The results of the present research provide new information on the field of hospital design. The design of hospitals was no longer the sole prerogative of architects. Instead, modern hospital design involved the collaboration and networking of experts in various fields. During the period studied, the pavilion system was incorporated in hospital architecture in the block system, which was regarded as a rational. Rationalization was implemented upon the conditions of medical work. This led to spatial design in accordance with medical practices, through which norms were reinforced and created. An important aspect of the material is that the requirements of light, air, openness and hygiene created architecture in glass of an x-ray character, strongly associated with the element of discipline. The alliance of hygiene and architecture became a strategy for controlling the behaviour and encounters of people, for producing pedagogical and moral hygiene, and for reinforcing class hygiene. The modern hospital building also had to meet the requirements of aesthetic hygiene. Health-care facilities designed for women and children became production-oriented machinery, instruments for producing a healthy population and for reinforcing medical discourses.

Gedichte Gesammelt in Nord-Afrika zwischen dem 10. Dezember 1940 und dem 1. April 1942

Poems by Vera LaRouche compiled in North Africa between December 10, 1940 and April 1, 1942. (6p/typed)

How do you like America? 1800-1940

The memoirs were written in 2000 in California and contains some of the author's diary entries during the years of the family's emigration and reminiscences of the author's father. Detailed description of family history going back to the early 19th century. The author's grandfather Moses Stern had a rawproduct business in Gelsenkirchen, Westphalia. His father Max Stern took his graduate exam (Abitur) at the Jacobsohn boarding school in 1904 and was sent to a business school in Brussles, Belgium. Work in the family business M. Stern AG. World War One and rise of the family business with branches throughout Germany and offices in New York, London, Milan and Stockholm. Due to political unrest at the end of the war the business administration moved to Essen. Description of the family background of Beate Herzberg, the author's mother. Courtship of his parents and marriage in 1922. Birth of his sister Annelore in 1923. Martin Stern was born in 1924. Description of the family household and domestic life in a well-to-do family the 1920s. Friday visits to the synagogue and celebration of Jewish holidays. Vacations at the North sea and skiinig in the Alps. Martin attended a Jewish elementary school. Rising National Socialism. After Hitler came to power in 1933 the author's father immediately started preparations for the family's emigration, but was persuaded to stay by his family. Life under National Socialism. Martin attended Gymnasium and was one of only two Jewish students in his class. Antisemitic incidents. Private lessons in piano and Hebrew. Bar Mitzvah in 1937. Recollections of performances of the Kulturbund.

Erlebnisse 1940-1944 1940-1944

Exile in Haarlem (Holland); deportation to Westerbork (1943) and Bergen-Belsen (1944) concentration camps; in June 1944 liberation from Bergen-Belsen through special agreement; train-ride to Palestine (summer 1944)

Sokolosky: A Story of a Family 1860-1990

Genealogy of Sokolosky family reaching back to their Posen origins; emigration to New Orleans, Mississippi and Texas in 1860s; further family history in USA until 1990. Contains also preface by Rabbi Malcolm H. Stern, photographes of members of Sokolosky family, of gravestones and of family documents.