Development of the morpholino gene knockdown technique in Fundulus heteroclitus: a tool for studying molecular mechanisms in an established environmental model.

A significant challenge in environmental toxicology is that many genetic and genomic tools available in laboratory models are not developed for commonly used environmental models. The Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) is one of the most studied teleost environmental models, yet few genetic or genomic tools have been developed for use in this species. The advancement of genetic and evolutionary toxicology will require that many of the tools developed in laboratory models be transferred into species more applicable to environmental toxicology. Antisense morpholino oligonucleotide (MO) gene knockdown technology has been widely utilized to study development in zebrafish and has been proven to be a powerful tool in toxicological investigations through direct manipulation of molecular pathways. To expand the utility of killifish as an environmental model, MO gene knockdown technology was adapted for use in Fundulus. Morpholino microinjection methods were altered to overcome the significant differences between these two species. Morpholino efficacy and functional duration were evaluated with molecular and phenotypic methods. A cytochrome P450-1A (CYP1A) MO was used to confirm effectiveness of the methodology. For CYP1A MO-injected embryos, a 70% reduction in CYP1A activity, a 86% reduction in total CYP1A protein, a significant increase in beta-naphthoflavone-induced teratogenicity, and estimates of functional duration (50% reduction in activity 10 dpf, and 86% reduction in total protein 12 dpf) conclusively demonstrated that MO technologies can be used effectively in killifish and will likely be just as informative as they have been in zebrafish.

Features of programmed cell death in intact Xenopus oocytes and early embryos revealed by near-infrared fluorescence and real-time monitoring.

Factors influencing apoptosis of vertebrate eggs and early embryos have been studied in cell-free systems and in intact embryos by analyzing individual apoptotic regulators or caspase activation in static samples. A novel method for monitoring caspase activity in living Xenopus oocytes and early embryos is described here. The approach, using microinjection of a near-infrared caspase substrate that emits fluorescence only after its proteolytic cleavage by active effector caspases, has enabled the elucidation of otherwise cryptic aspects of apoptotic regulation. In particular, we show that brief caspase activity (10 min) is sufficient to cause apoptotic death in this system. We illustrate a cytochrome c dose threshold in the oocyte, which is lowered by Smac, a protein that binds thereby neutralizing the inhibitor of apoptosis proteins. We show that meiotic oocytes develop resistance to cytochrome c, and that the eventual death of oocytes arrested in meiosis is caspase-independent. Finally, data acquired through imaging caspase activity in the Xenopus embryo suggest that apoptosis in very early development is not cell-autonomous. These studies both validate this assay as a useful tool for apoptosis research and reveal subtleties in the cell death program during early development. Moreover, this method offers a potentially valuable screening modality for identifying novel apoptotic regulators.

Transcription factors MYOCD, SRF, Mesp1 and SMARCD3 enhance the cardio-inducing effect of GATA4, TBX5, and MEF2C during direct cellular reprogramming.

Transient overexpression of defined combinations of master regulator genes can effectively induce cellular reprogramming: the acquisition of an alternative predicted phenotype from a differentiated cell lineage. This can be of particular importance in cardiac regenerative medicine wherein the heart lacks the capacity to heal itself, but simultaneously contains a large pool of fibroblasts. In this study we determined the cardio-inducing capacity of ten transcription factors to actuate cellular reprogramming of mouse embryonic fibroblasts into cardiomyocyte-like cells. Overexpression of transcription factors MYOCD and SRF alone or in conjunction with Mesp1 and SMARCD3 enhanced the basal but necessary cardio-inducing effect of the previously reported GATA4, TBX5, and MEF2C. In particular, combinations of five or seven transcription factors enhanced the activation of cardiac reporter vectors, and induced an upregulation of cardiac-specific genes. Global gene expression analysis also demonstrated a significantly greater cardio-inducing effect when the transcription factors MYOCD and SRF were used. Detection of cross-striated cells was highly dependent on the cell culture conditions and was enhanced by the addition of valproic acid and JAK inhibitor. Although we detected Ca(2+) transient oscillations in the reprogrammed cells, we did not detect significant changes in resting membrane potential or spontaneously contracting cells. This study further elucidates the cardio-inducing effect of the transcriptional networks involved in cardiac cellular reprogramming, contributing to the ongoing rational design of a robust protocol required for cardiac regenerative therapies.

Developmental and tissue-specific expression of NITRs.

Novel immune-type receptors (NITRs) are encoded by large multi-gene families and share structural and signaling similarities to mammalian natural killer receptors (NKRs). NITRs have been identified in multiple bony fish species, including zebrafish, and may be restricted to this large taxonomic group. Thirty-nine NITR genes that can be classified into 14 families are encoded on zebrafish chromosomes 7 and 14. Herein, we demonstrate the expression of multiple NITR genes in the zebrafish ovary and during embryogenesis. All 14 families of zebrafish NITRs are expressed in hematopoietic kidney, spleen and intestine as are immunoglobulin and T cell antigen receptors. Furthermore, all 14 families of NITRs are shown to be expressed in the lymphocyte lineage, but not in the myeloid lineage, consistent with the hypothesis that NITRs function as NKRs. Sequence analyses of NITR amplicons identify known alleles and reveal additional alleles within the nitr1, nitr2, nitr3, and nitr5 families, reflecting the recent evolution of this gene family.

Impacts of Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining on the Mud River, West Virginia: Selenium Accumulation, Trophic Transfer, and Toxicity in Fish

Selenium (Se) is a micronutrient necessary for the function of a variety of important enzymes; Se also exhibits a narrow range in concentrations between essentiality and toxicity. Oviparous vertebrates such as birds and fish are especially sensitive to Se toxicity, which causes reproductive impairment and defects in embryo development. Selenium occurs naturally in the Earth's crust, but it can be mobilized by a variety of anthropogenic activities, including agricultural practices, coal burning, and mining.

Mountaintop removal/valley fill (MTR/VF) coal mining is a form of surface mining found throughout central Appalachia in the United States that involves blasting off the tops of mountains to access underlying coal seams. Spoil rock from the mountain is placed into adjacent valleys, forming valley fills, which bury stream headwaters and negatively impact surface water quality. This research focused on the biological impacts of Se leached from MTR/VF coal mining operations located around the Mud River, West Virginia.

In order to assess the status of Se in a lotic (flowing) system such as the Mud River, surface water, insects, and fish samples including creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus) and green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) were collected from a mining impacted site as well as from a reference site not impacted by mining. Analysis of samples from the mined site showed increased conductivity and Se in the surface waters compared to the reference site in addition to increased concentrations of Se in insects and fish. Histological analysis of mined site fish gills showed a lack of normal parasites, suggesting parasite populations may be disrupted due to poor water quality. X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy techniques were used to determine the speciation of Se in insect and creek chub samples. Insects contained approximately 40-50% inorganic Se (selenate and selenite) and 50-60% organic Se (Se-methionine and Se-cystine) while fish tissues contained lower proportions of inorganic Se than insects, instead having higher proportions of organic Se in the forms of methyl-Se-cysteine, Se-cystine, and Se-methionine.

Otoliths, calcified inner ear structures, were also collected from Mud River creek chubs and green sunfish and analyzed for Se content using laser ablation inductively couple mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Significant differences were found between the two species of fish, based on the concentrations of otolith Se. Green sunfish otoliths from all sites contained background or low concentrations of otolith Se (< 1 µg/g) that were not significantly different between mined and unmined sites. In contrast creek chub otoliths from the historically mined site contained much higher (≥ 5 µg/g, up to approximately 68 µg/g) concentrations of Se than for the same species in the unmined site or for the green sunfish. Otolith Se concentrations were related to muscle Se concentrations for creek chubs (R2 = 0.54, p = 0.0002 for the last 20% of the otolith Se versus muscle Se) while no relationship was observed for green sunfish.

Additional experiments using biofilms grown in the Mud River showed increased Se in mined site biofilms compared to the reference site. When we fed fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) on these biofilms in the laboratory they accumulated higher concentrations of Se in liver and ovary tissues compared to fathead minnows fed on reference site biofilms. No differences in Se accumulation were found in muscle from either treatment group. Biofilms were also centrifuged and separated into filamentous green algae and the remaining diatom fraction. The majority of Se was found in the diatom fraction with only about 1/3rd of total biofilm Se concentration present in the filamentous green algae fraction

Finally, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were exposed to aqueous Se in the form of selenate, selenite, and L-selenomethionine in an attempt to determine if oxidative stress plays a role in selenium embryo toxicity. Selenate and selenite exposure did not induce embryo deformities (lordosis and craniofacial malformation). L-selenomethionine, however, induced significantly higher deformity rates at 100 µg/L compared to controls. Antioxidant rescue of L-selenomethionime induced deformities was attempted in embryos using N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Pretreatment with NAC significantly reduced deformities in the zebrafish embryos secondarily treated with L-selenomethionine, suggesting that oxidative stress may play a role in Se toxicity. Selenite exposure also induced a 6.6-fold increase in glutathione-S-transferase pi class 2 gene expression, which is involved in xenobiotic transformation. No changes in gene expression were observed for selenate or L-selenomethionine-exposed embryos.

The findings in this dissertation contribute to the understanding of how Se bioaccumulates in a lotic system and is transferred through a simulated foodweb in addition to further exploring oxidative stress as a potential mechanism for Se-induced embryo toxicity. Future studies should continue to pursue the role of oxidative stress and other mechanisms in Se toxicity and the biotransformation of Se in aquatic ecosystems.

Radioactive in situ hybridization for detecting diverse gene expression patterns in tissue.

Knowing the timing, level, cellular localization, and cell type that a gene is expressed in contributes to our understanding of the function of the gene. Each of these features can be accomplished with in situ hybridization to mRNAs within cells. Here we present a radioactive in situ hybridization method modified from Clayton et al. (1988)(1) that has been working successfully in our lab for many years, especially for adult vertebrate brains(2-5). The long complementary RNA (cRNA) probes to the target sequence allows for detection of low abundance transcripts(6,7). Incorporation of radioactive nucleotides into the cRNA probes allows for further detection sensitivity of low abundance transcripts and quantitative analyses, either by light sensitive x-ray film or emulsion coated over the tissue. These detection methods provide a long-term record of target gene expression. Compared with non-radioactive probe methods, such as DIG-labeling, the radioactive probe hybridization method does not require multiple amplification steps using HRP-antibodies and/or TSA kit to detect low abundance transcripts. Therefore, this method provides a linear relation between signal intensity and targeted mRNA amounts for quantitative analysis. It allows processing 100-200 slides simultaneously. It works well for different developmental stages of embryos. Most developmental studies of gene expression use whole embryos and non-radioactive approaches(8,9), in part because embryonic tissue is more fragile than adult tissue, with less cohesion between cells, making it difficult to see boundaries between cell populations with tissue sections. In contrast, our radioactive approach, due to the larger range of sensitivity, is able to obtain higher contrast in resolution of gene expression between tissue regions, making it easier to see boundaries between populations. Using this method, researchers could reveal the possible significance of a newly identified gene, and further predict the function of the gene of interest.

Mammalian genes induce partially reprogrammed pluripotent stem cells in non-mammalian vertebrate and invertebrate species.

Cells are fundamental units of life, but little is known about evolution of cell states. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are once differentiated cells that have been re-programmed to an embryonic stem cell-like state, providing a powerful platform for biology and medicine. However, they have been limited to a few mammalian species. Here we found that a set of four mammalian transcription factor genes used to generate iPSCs in mouse and humans can induce a partially reprogrammed pluripotent stem cell (PRPSCs) state in vertebrate and invertebrate model organisms, in mammals, birds, fish, and fly, which span 550 million years from a common ancestor. These findings are one of the first to show cross-lineage stem cell-like induction, and to generate pluripotent-like cells for several of these species with in vivo chimeras. We suggest that the stem-cell state may be highly conserved across a wide phylogenetic range. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00036.001.

Public goods and procreation.

Procreation is the ultimate public goods problem. Each new child affects the welfare of many other people, and some (but not all) children produce uncompensated value that future people will enjoy. This essay addresses challenges that arise if we think of procreation and parenting as public goods. These include whether individual choices are likely to lead to a socially desirable outcome, and whether changes in laws, social norms, or access to genetic engineering and embryo selection might improve the aggregate outcome of our reproductive choices.

Transgenerational Effects of Early Life Starvation on Growth, Reproduction, and Stress Resistance in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Starvation during early development can have lasting effects that influence organismal fitness and disease risk. We characterized the long-term phenotypic consequences of starvation during early larval development in Caenorhabditis elegans to determine potential fitness effects and develop it as a model for mechanistic studies. We varied the amount of time that larvae were developmentally arrested by starvation after hatching ("L1 arrest"). Worms recovering from extended starvation grew slowly, taking longer to become reproductive, and were smaller as adults. Fecundity was also reduced, with the smallest individuals most severely affected. Feeding behavior was impaired, possibly contributing to deficits in growth and reproduction. Previously starved larvae were more sensitive to subsequent starvation, suggesting decreased fitness even in poor conditions. We discovered that smaller larvae are more resistant to heat, but this correlation does not require passage through L1 arrest. The progeny of starved animals were also adversely affected: Embryo quality was diminished, incidence of males was increased, progeny were smaller, and their brood size was reduced. However, the progeny and grandprogeny of starved larvae were more resistant to starvation. In addition, the progeny, grandprogeny, and great-grandprogeny were more resistant to heat, suggesting epigenetic inheritance of acquired resistance to starvation and heat. Notably, such resistance was inherited exclusively from individuals most severely affected by starvation in the first generation, suggesting an evolutionary bet-hedging strategy. In summary, our results demonstrate that starvation affects a variety of life-history traits in the exposed animals and their descendants, some presumably reflecting fitness costs but others potentially adaptive.

NgBR is essential for endothelial cell glycosylation and vascular development.

NgBR is a transmembrane protein identified as a Nogo-B-interacting protein and recently has been shown to be a subunit required for cis-prenyltransferase (cisPTase) activity. To investigate the integrated role of NgBR in vascular development, we have characterized endothelial-specific NgBR knockout embryos. Here, we show that endothelial-specific NgBR knockout results in embryonic lethality due to vascular development defects in yolk sac and embryo proper. Loss of NgBR in endothelial cells reduces proliferation and promotes apoptosis of the cells largely through defects in the glycosylation of key endothelial proteins including VEGFR2, VE-cadherin, and CD31, and defective glycosylation can be rescued by treatment with the end product of cisPTase activity, dolichol phosphate. Moreover, NgBR functions in endothelial cells during embryogenesis are Nogo-B independent. These data uniquely show the importance of NgBR and protein glycosylation during vascular development.

Bases ecofisiológicas relacionadas con la tolerancia a la inundación y la defoliación en especies conspicuas de pastizales húmedos

Las inundaciones y el pastoreo son disturbios importantes que modulan la estructura y el funcionamiento de pastizales húmedos. La inundación genera un ambiente anaeróbico en el suelo, disminuyendo la disponibilidad de oxígeno para las raíces, mientras que el pastoreo afecta a la vegetación mediante la defoliación selectiva del forraje. En primer lugar se investigaron los rasgos anatómicos y las respuestas fisiológicas relacionadas con el crecimiento bajo anaerobiosis de raíces de graminoides (Paspalidium geminatum, Cyperus eragrostis) y dicotiledóneas (Lotus tenuis, Rumex crispus) con distintos tipos de aerénquima. Se encontró que las graminoides mantienen la tasa de elongación de sus raíces bajo anaerobiosis, con alta proporción de aerénquima para conducir oxígeno y una barrera física (menor suberina) - constitutiva en P. geminatum e inducida en C. eragrostis - que limita la pérdida radial de oxígeno hacia la rizósfera. Por el contrario, las dicotiledóneas disminuyen la elongación radical en medio anaeróbico, a pesar de incrementar el aerénquima en sus raíces, asociado a una alta pérdida radial de oxígeno y una menor deposición de suberina en la corteza radical externa. En segundo lugar, se estudiaron las estrategias de crecimiento de L. tenuis y P. dilatatum bajo condiciones de sumersión parcial y completa de sus plantas (i.e. intensidad de inundación), con énfasis en el uso de carbohidratos de reserva. Se demostró que L. tenuis puede desarrollar dos estrategias de crecimiento: 'escape' del agua bajo sumersión parcial sin usar sus reservas y sobrevivir 30 días en estado de 'quiescencia' bajo sumersión completa utilizando sus reservas. Por el contrario, P. dilatatum sólo desarrolla 'escape' bajo sumersión parcial y no tolera (muere) la sumersión completa. En tercer lugar, se evaluaron las respuestas de L. tenuis y P. dilatatum frente a la combinación inundación/frecuencia de defoliación. Aquí se encontró que L. tenuis tolera los eventos sucesivos de defoliación bajo inundación, con un mínimo crecimiento, a partir de priorizar la emergencia de las hojas fuera del agua post-corte, utilizando exhaustivamente las reservas en coronas. Por el contrario, P. dilatatum no sobrevive a dos defoliaciones si se encuentra bajo anegamiento. De esta manera, si bien ambas especies toleran la inundación y la defoliación por separado, si estos estreses se combinan se compromete la supervivencia de la gramínea y el rebrote de la leguminosa. En consecuencia, resulta importante considerar el tiempo entre defoliaciones sucesivas, si el suelo está inundado, al momento de planificar las estrategias de manejo de estas especies en el pastizal

Alternativas para aumentar la producción de forraje en pastizales naturales de la pampa deprimida

El sobrepastoreo es la principal causa de deterioro de los sistemas pastoriles del mundo. Este proceso reduce la provisión de forraje y de otros servicios ecosistémicos como la regulación del balance de carbono o la biodiversidad. Esta tesis investigó el efecto individual o combinado del agregado de herbicida, nitrógeno y Lotus tenuis sobre la oferta forrajera del pastizal. Probamos la hipótesis que la liberación de recursos provocada por el herbicida sobre las poblaciones no forrajeras será aprovechada por las especies de mayor valor si se estimula su crecimiento por medio de la acción de las otras prácticas (fertilización e intersiembra) . Se realizaron dos experimentos a campo, de un año de duración, en un pastizal natural de la Pampa deprimida (Pcia. de Buenos Aires) . El primero evaluó el efecto del agregado de nitrógeno y de semillas de L. tenuis en parcelas que habían sido tratadas, o no, con herbicida selectivo. El segundo evaluó el impacto del agregado de fósforo en parcelas que habían recibido, o no, nitrógeno o L. tenuis, a su vez con o sin herbicida. Se estimaron distintas variables que describen la respuesta de la vegetación a esos tratamientos. El herbicida controló eficazmente a las especies de bajo valor forrajero y aumentó la productividad del pastizal, porque permitió la promoción del crecimiento de las gramíneas estivales. Ni el agregado de nitrógeno ni el de semillas de L. tenuis mejoraron la oferta forrajera e, incluso, con estos tratamientos aumentó la población de A. tenuifolia. El agregado de fósforo al pastizal que había recibido nitrógeno o L. tenuis solo presentó un moderado efecto positivo en la abundancia relativa de las gramíneas invernales. Los resultados indican que, en el corto plazo, el control con herbicida fue la única estrategia que revirtió parcialmente los efectos negativos del sobrepastoreo.

Efectos directos e indirectos del herbicida glifosato sobre los hongos micorrícicos arbusculares en pastizales de la pampa deprimida

Los hongos micorrícicos arbusculares (HMA) son simbiontes obligados, con un importante rol en el crecimiento de las plantas y en la estructura de la comunidad vegetal. El impacto del glifosato sobre los HMA no ha sido evaluado en pastizales naturales pampeanos, donde es aplicado para promover especies invernales anuales. Se propuso como hipótesis general que el glifosato afectaría negativamente a los HMA directamente sobre las estructuras del hongo expuestas al herbicida, e indirectamente al dañar el vigor de la planta hospedante (dependiendo esto último de la especie vegetal). Primeramente, se evaluó la viabilidad de las esporas y su capacidad de colonizar raíces en suelos de un pastizal de la Pampa Deprimida tratados con la dosis recomendada a campo y con una dosis subletal para las plantas. Se detectó una disminución en la viabilidad de esporas incluso en la dosis subletal y una menor colonización radical y arbúsculos en plantas creciendo en suelos tratados con la dosis máxima. Luego, se discriminaron los efectos directos del glifosato de los indirectos sobre los HMA, utilizando Lotus tenuis y Paspalum dilatatum como plantas hospedantes. Los resultados mostraron que en ambas especies la viabilidad de esporas se vio afectada solamente por los efectos directos del glifosato, la colonización radical fue reducida tanto por los efectos directos como por los indirectos en igual medida, mientras que en el porcentaje de arbúsculos el efecto indirecto fue mayor. Por último, se evaluó el impacto a campo del glifosato sobre los HMA y la vegetación. La viabilidad de esporas se redujo cuando se aplicó la dosis máxima, siendo esta reducción distinta según la especie de HMA. La colonización radical no fue afectada, y el porcentaje de arbúsculos sólo se redujo en P. dilatatum y cuando se aplicó la dosis máxima. Respecto a la estructura de la vegetación, el glifosato provocó una reducción de la cobertura total y un aumento de la de dicotiledóneas no leguminosas. Los resultados respaldan la hipótesis general, ya que el glifosato afectó negativamente a los HMA tanto directa como indirectamente. Sin embargo, la identidad de la planta hospedante no influyó marcadamente los efectos indirectos. Esta práctica de manejo altera el funcionamiento de los HMA en el corto plazo y potencialmente en el largo plazo al alterar la comunidad vegetal. La información generada en esta tesis podrá utilizarse al momento de generar estrategias de manejo más sustentable en estos sistemas.

Efectos de la composición de grupos funcionales sobre la invasión de especies exóticas y su impacto en pastizales de la pampa deprimida

El manejo de los ecosistemas produce cambios en la composición de las comunidades, que pueden influir sobre la susceptibilidad de la comunidad a ser invadida y sobre los impactos de la invasión. En esta tesis, avanzo con la comprensión del rol que ejerce la composición funcional de plantas sobre la invasión de especies exóticas, usando dos aproximaciones experimentales. El experimento de remoción mostró que la pérdida selectiva de grupos funcionales promovió la invasión de acuerdo a la cantidad de biomasa removida, pero también a partir de un efecto de identidad de los pastos nativos de verano. La falta de compensación de los grupos remanentes, permitió que la invasión persista hasta al menos dos años después de cesados los disturbios. El experimento de ensamble en donde varió la composición de la comunidad, mostró una interacción sub-aditiva entre grupos funcionales nativos, generando que comunidades más diversas sean menos resistentes a la invasión respecto de comunidades compuestas por el grupo funcional más resistente. La composición de la comunidad determinó la invasión por Lolium multiflorum pero apenas afectó a Lotus tenuis. La intensidad de defoliación aumentó la invasión, pero en general no cambió los efectos de la composición funcional, excepto cuando la resistencia a la invasión estuvo dada por una alta superposición de nichos. La invasión por L. multiflorum o L. tenuis afectó negativamente a los pastos nativos de invierno, mientras que la productividad primaria neta aérea aumentó o no fue afectada. La superposición temporal de nichos, el efecto de prioridad y el fitness relativo de la invasora regularon el éxito de la invasión y los impactos generados sobre la comunidad receptora. Sin embargo, los efectos interactivos observados en ambos experimentos sugieren que la facilitación indirecta puede jugar un rol importante en controlar el éxito de las invasiones y los impactos que éstas generan.

La aplicación de herbicidas sistémicos de amplio espectro en pastizales naturales : efectos sobre los atributos y procesos del ecosistema

Esta tesis analiza los efectos de la aplicación de un herbicida sistémico no selectivo, el glifosato, sobre atributos estructurales y funcionales de pastizales naturales pastoreados por herbívoros domésticos. Se realizaron experimentos en un establecimiento ganadero de la Pampa Deprimida, donde la pulverización recurrente de pastizales con glifosato a fin de verano para incrementar la oferta de forraje invernal se ha difundido ampliamente. La pulverización de glifosato produjo un drástico cambio de la composición florística de la vegetación y del banco de semillas, aumentando la contribución de pastos anuales invernales y disminuyendo la de pastos perennes invernales, estivales y leguminosas, redujo la riqueza y la diversidad y disminuyó la cobertura y la calidad forrajera estival. Estos cambios en la vegetación modificaron atributos funcionales, ya que la pulverización incrementó la absorción de radiación y la productividad primaria neta aérea del pastizal en invierno-primavera y las redujo en verano, pero el incremento invierno-primaveral no compensó la disminución estival. La menor producción primaria anual podría relacionarse con el menor contenido de materia orgánica y de fósforo edáfico en los lotes pulverizados. Mediante experimentos en condiciones controladas investigué la respuesta de mecanismos biológicos claves, la regeneración vegetativa y la emergencia y crecimiento de plántulas, a la aplicación de glifosato, de Paspalum dilatatum, Schedonorus arundinaceus, Lotus tenuis y Trifolium repens, principales miembros de los grupos funcionales más afectados. El glifosato provocó la muerte de todos los tejidos, impidiendo la regeneración vegetativa, y redujo la emergencia y el establecimiento de plántulas cuando se pulverizó sobre vegetación pre-existente hasta sesenta días antes de la germinación. Estos mecanismos explican, en gran medida los cambios en la composición de la vegetación y del banco de semillas. Los resultados sugieren que los drásticos cambios que la aplicación de glifosato causa en el pastizal pueden ser irreversibles, poniendo en riesgo la integridad del ecosistema y su sustentabilidad como recurso forrajero