972 resultados para Polarity


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In Vertebraten und Insekten ist während der frühen Entwicklung des zentralen Nervensystems (ZNS), welches sich aus dem Gehirn und dem ventralen Nervensystem (VNS) zusammensetzt, die Unterteilung des Neuroektoderms (NE) in diskrete Genexpressions-Domänen entscheidend für die korrekte Spezifizierung neuraler Stammzellen. In Drosophila wird die Identität dieser Stammzellen (Neuroblasten, NB) festgelegt durch die positionellen Informationen, welche von den Produkten früher Musterbildungsgene bereitgestellt werden und das Neuroektoderm in anteroposteriorer (AP) und dorsoventraler (DV) Achse unterteilen. Die molekulargenetischen Mechanismen, welche der DV-Regionalisierung zugrunde liegen, wurden ausführlich im embryonalen VNS untersucht, sind für das Gehirn jedoch weitestgehend unverstanden. rnIm Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden neue Erkenntnisse bezüglich der genetischen Mechanismen gewonnen, welche die frühembryonale Anlage des Gehirns in DV-Achse unterteilen. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass das cephale Lückengen empty spiracles (ems), das Segmentpolaritätsgen engrailed (en), sowie der „Epidermal growth factor receptor“ (EGFR) und das Gen Nk6 homeobox (Nkx6) für Faktoren codieren, die als zentrale Regulatoren die DV Musterbildung in der Gehirnanlage kontrollieren. Diese Faktoren interagieren zusammen mit den ebenso evolutionär konservierten Homöobox-Genen ventral nervous system defective (vnd), intermediate neuroblasts defective (ind) und muscle segment homeobox (msh) in einem komplexen, regulatorischen DV-Netzwerk. Die im Trito (TC)- und Deutocerebrum (DC) entschlüsselten genetischen Interaktionen basieren überwiegend auf wechselseitiger Repression. Dementsprechend sorgen 1) Vnd und Ems durch gegenseitige Repression für eine frühe DV-Unterteilung des NE, und 2) wechselseitige Repression zwischen Nkx6 und Msh, als auch zwischen Ind und Msh für die Aufrechterhaltung der Grenze zwischen intermediärem und dorsalem NE. 3) Sowohl Ind als auch Msh sind in der Lage, die Expression von vnd zu inhibieren. Ferner konnte gezeigt werden, dass Vnd durch Repression von Msh als positiver Regulator von Nkx6 fungiert. Überdies beeinflusst Vnd die Expression von ind in segment-spezifischer Art und Weise: Vnd reprimiert ind-Expression im TC, sorgt jedoch für eine positive Regulation von ind im DC durch Repression von Msh. Auch der EGFR-Signalweg ist an der frühen DV-Regionalisierung des Gehirns beteiligt, indem er durch positive Regulation der msh-Repressoren Vnd, Ind und Nkx6 dazu beiträgt, dass die Expression von msh auf dorsales NE beschränkt bleibt. Ferner stellte sich heraus, dass das AP-Musterbildungsgen ems die Expression der DV-Gene kontrolliert und umgekehrt: Ems ist für die Aktivierung von Nkx6, ind und msh in TC und DC erforderlich ist, während Nkx6 und Ind zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt benötigt werden, um ems im intermediären DC gemeinsam zu reprimieren. Überdies konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Segmentpolaritätsgen en Aspekte der Expression von vnd, ind und msh in segment-spezifischer Art und Weise reguliert. En reprimiert ind und msh, hält jedoch vnd-Expression im DC aufrecht; im TC wird En benötigt, um die Expression von Msh herunter zu regulieren und somit die Aktivierung von ind dort zu ermöglichen.rnrnZusammengenommen zeigen diese Ergebnisse, dass AP Musterbildungsfaktoren in umfangreichen Maß die Expression der DV Gene im Gehirn (und VNS) kontrollieren. Ferner deuten diese Daten darauf hin, dass sich das „Konzept der ventralen Dominanz“, welches für die DV-Musterbildung im VNS postuliert wurde, nicht auf das genregulatorische Netzwerk im Gehirn übertragen lässt, da Interaktionen zwischen den beteiligten Faktoren hauptsächlich auf wechselseitiger (und nicht einseitiger) Repression basieren. Zudem scheint das Konzept der ventralen Dominanz auch für das VNS nicht uneingeschränkt zu gelten, da in dieser Arbeit u.a. gezeigt werden konnte, dass dorsal exprimiertes Msh in der Lage ist, intermediäres ind zu reprimieren. Interessanterweise ist gegenseitige Repression von Homöodomänen-Proteinen im sich entwickelnden Neuralrohr von Vertebraten weit verbreitet und darüberhinaus essenziell für den Aufbau diskreter DV-Vorläuferdomänen, und weist insofern eine große Ähnlichkeit zu den in dieser Arbeit beschriebenen DV-Musterbildungsvorgängen im frühembryonalen Fliegengehirn auf.rn

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The contribution of Clostridium difficile toxin A and B (TcdA and TcdB) to cellular intoxication has been extensively studied, but their impact on bacterial colonization remains unclear. By setting-up two- and three-dimensional in vitro models of polarized gut epithelium, we investigated how C. difficile infection is affected by host cell polarity and whether TcdA and TcdB contribute to such events. Indeed, we observed that C. difficile adhesion and penetration of the epithelial barrier is substantially enhanced in poorly polarized or EGTA-treated cells, indicating that bacteria bind preferentially to the basolateral cell surface. In this context, we demonstrated that sub-lethal concentrations of C. difficile TcdA are able to alter cell polarity by causing redistribution of plasma membrane components between distinct surface domains. Taken together, the data suggest that toxin-mediated modulation of host cell organization may account for the capacity of this opportunistic pathogen to gain access to basolateral receptors leading to a successful colonization of the colonic mucosa.

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The present thesis can be divided in three main parts. In all parts new polymer architecturesrnwere synthesized and characterized concerning their special features.rnThe first part will emphasize the advantage of a polystyrene-block-(hyperbranchedrnpolyglycerol) copolymer in comparison to an analogue polystyrene-block-(linear polyglycerol)rncopolymer. Therefore a synthethic route to prepare linear block copolymersrnhas been developed. Two strategies were examined. One strategy was based on thernclassic, sequential anionic polymerization; the second strategy was based on arn“Click-Chemistry” coupling reaction. In a following step glycidol was hypergraftedrnfrom these block copolymers by applying a hypergrafting reaction with glycidol. Thernbehavior of the amphiphilic block copolymers synthesized was studied in differentrnsolvents. Furthermore the polarity of the solvent was changed to form the correspondingrninverse micelles. DLS, SLS, SEC-MALLS-VISCO, AFM and Cyro TEMrnmeasurements were performed to obtain a visual image from the appearance of thernaggregates. It was found that a linear-hyperbranched architecture is necessary, ifrnwell defined, monodisperse aggregates are required, e.g. for the preparation of orderedrnnanoarrays. Linear-linear block copolymers formed only polydisperse aggregates.rnAdditionally it was found that size distribution could be improved dramaticallyrnby passing the aggregates through a SEC column with large pores. The SEC columnsrnacted like a template in which the aggregates adopt a more stable conformation.rnIn the second part anionic polymerization was employed to synthesize silaneendfunctionalizedrnmacromonomers with different molecular weights based on polybutadienernand polyisoprene. These were polymerized by a hydrosilylation reaction inrnbulk to obtain branched polymers, using Karstedt’s catalyst. Surprisingly the additionrnof monofunctional silanes during the polymerization had only a minimal effect concerningrnthe degree of polymerization. It was possible to introduce silanes without increasingrnthe overall number of reaction steps by a very convenient “pseudo-copolymerization”rnmethod. All branched polymers were analyzed by SEC, SEC-MALLS,rnSEC-viscometry, 1H-NMR-spectroscopy and DSC concerning their branching ratio.rnThe branching parameters for the branched polymers exhibited similar characteristicsrnas hyperbranched polymers based on AB2 monomers. Detailed kinetic study showedrnthat the polymerization occurred very rapidly in comparison to the hydrosilylation polymerizationrnof classical AB2 type carbosilanes monomers.rnThe last part will deal with ferrocenyl-functionalized polymers. On the one hand,rnferrocenyl-functionalized polyglycerols (PG) were studied. Esterification of PGs withrndifferent molecular weight using ferrocenemonocarboxylic acid gave the ferrocenylrnfuntionalized polymers in high yields. On the other hand three different block copolymersrnwere prepared with different ratios of styrene to butadiene units (10:1, 4:1, 2:1).rnThe double bonds of the 1,2-PB block were hydrosilylated using silanes bearing onern(HSiMe2Fc) or two (HSiMeFc2) ferrocene units. High degrees of functionalizationrnwere obtained (up to 83 %). In this manner, six different ferrocenyl-rich block copolymersrnwith different fractions of ferrocene were prepared and analyzed, employingrnNMR-spectroscopy, SEC, SEC/MALLS/viscometry, DLS and cyclic voltammetry. Thernredox properties of the studied polymers varied primarily with the nature of the silanernunit attached. Additionally, the redox properties in solution of the studied polymersrnwere influenced by the block length ratio of the block copolymers. Unexpectedly, withrnincreasing block length of the ferrocenyl block the fraction of active ferrocenes decreased.rnNevertheless, in case of thin monolayer films this behaviour was not observed.rnAll polymers (PG and PS-b-PB based) exhibited good electrochemical propertiesrnin a wide range of solvents, which rendered them very interesting for biosensoricrnapplications.

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The aim of this work is to investigate, using extensive Monte Carlo computer simulations, composite materials consisting of liquid crystals doped with nanoparticles. These systems are currently of great interest as they offer the possibility of tuning the properties of liquid crystals used in displays and other devices as well as providing a way of obtaining regularly organized systems of nanoparticles exploiting the molecular organization of the liquid crystal medium. Surprisingly enough, there is however a lack of fundamental knowledge on the properties and phase behavior of these hybrid materials, making the route to their application an essentially empirical one. Here we wish to contribute to the much needed rationalization of these systems studying some basic effects induced by different nanoparticles on a liquid crystal host. We investigate in particular the effects of nanoparticle shape, size and polarity as well as of their affinity to the liquid crystal solvent on the stability of the system, monitoring phase transitions, order and molecular organizations. To do this we have proposed a coarse grained approach where nanoparticles are modelled as a suitably shaped (spherical, rod and disk like) collection of spherical Lennard-Jones beads, while the mesogens are represented with Gay-Berne particles. We find that the addition of apolar nanoparticles of different shape typically lowers the nematic–isotropic transition of a non-polar nematic, with the destabilization being greater for spherical nanoparticles. For polar mesogens we have studied the effect of solvent affinity of the nanoparticles showing that aggregation takes places for low solvation values. Interestingly, if the nanoparticles are polar the aggregates contribute to stabilizing the system, compensating the shape effect. We thus find the overall effects on stability to be a delicate balance of often contrasting contributions pointing to the relevance of simulations studies for understanding these complex systems.

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Within this thesis, new approaches for the concepts of peptide-polymer conjugates and peptide-based hybrid nanomaterials are investigated. In the first part, the synthesis of a triblock polymer-peptide-polymer is carried out following a typical peptide coupling reaction, both in solution and on solid-phase. The peptide sequence is chosen, so that it is cleaved by an enzyme preparation of trypsin. End-functionalized polystyrene is used as a model hydrophobic polymer and coupled to the peptide sequence. The results show successful coupling reactions in both methods, while the solid phase method produced a more defined product. Suspensions, consisting of peptide-polymer conjugates particles, are prepared in water by ultrasonication. In contact with the enzyme, the peptide constituting the conjugated particles is cleaved. This demonstrates the enzymatic cleavage in heterophase of enzymatic sequence bond to hydrophobic polymers, and is of great interest for the encapsulation and delivery of hydrophobic molecules.rnA second approach is the preparation of peptide-based hybrid nanocapsules. This is achieved by interfacial polyaddition in inverse miniemulsion with the peptide sequence functionalized with additional amino acids. A method suitable to the use of a peptide sequence for interfacial polyaddition was developed. It is shown that, the polarity of the dispersed phase influences the structures prepared, from particle-like to polymeric shell with a liquid core.rnThe peptide sequence is equipped with a FRET pair (more exactly, an internally-quenched fluorescent system) which allows the real-time monitoring of the enzymatic cleavage of the recognition site. This system shows the successful cleavage of the peptide-based nanocapsules when trypsin preparation is added to the suspensions. A water-soluble fluorescent polymer is efficiently entrapped and its possible use as marker for the capsules is highlighted. Furthermore, a small water-soluble fluorescent dye (SR-101) is successfully encapsulated and the encapsulation efficiency as a function of the functionality of the peptide and the amount of comonomer equivalent (toluene diisocyanate) is studied. The dye is encapsulated at such a high concentration, that self-quenching occurs. Thus, the release of the encapsulated dye triggered by the enzymatic cleavage of the peptide results in a fluorescence recovery of the dye. The fluorescence recovery of the FRET pair in the peptide and of the encapsulated dye correlate well.rnFinally, nanocapsules based on a hepsin-cleavable peptide sequence are prepared. Hepsin is an enzyme, which is highly upregulated in prostate cancer cells. The cleavage of the nanocapsules is investigated with healthy and “cancerous” (hepsin-expressing) cell cultures. The degradation, followed via fluorescence recovery of the FRET system, is faster for the suspensions introduced in the hepsin expressing cell cultures.rnIn summary, this work tackles the domain of responsive nanomaterials for drug delivery from a new perspective. It presents the adaptation of the miniemulsion process for hybrid peptide-based materials, and their successful use in preparing specific enzyme-responsive nanoparticles, with hydrophilic payload release properties.rn

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The mixing of nanoparticles with polymers to form composite materials has been applied for decades. They combine the advantages of polymers (e.g., elasticity, transparency, or dielectric properties) and inorganic nanoparticles (e.g., specific absorption of light, magneto resistance effects, chemical activity, and catalysis etc.). Nanocomposites exhibit several new characters that single-phase materials do not have. Filling the polymeric matrix with an inorganic material requires its homogeneous distribution in order to achieve the highest possible synergetic effect. To fulfill this requirement, the incompatibility between the filler and the matrix, originating from their opposite polarity, has to be resolved. A very important parameter here is the strength and irreversibility of the adsorption of the surface active compound on the inorganic material. In this work the Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) was applied as a method to quantify and investigate the adsorption process and binding efficiencies in organic-inorganic–hybrid-systems by determining the thermodynamic parameters (ΔH, ΔS, ΔG, KB as well as the stoichiometry n). These values provide quantification and detailed understanding of the adsorption process of surface active molecules onto inorganic particles. In this way, a direct correlation between the adsorption strength and structure of the surface active compounds can be achieved. Above all, knowledge of the adsorption mechanism in combination with the structure should facilitate a more rational design into the mainly empirically based production and optimization of nanocomposites.

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Das menschliche Gen human giant larvae (hugl) ist ein Homolog des hochkonservierten Drosophila Gens lethal giant larvae (lgl), welches in Epithelzellen die Funktion eines neoplastischen Tumorsuppressors und Polaritätsregulators einnimmt. Ein Verlust oder eine verminderte Expression beider Homologe des Gens, hugl-1 und hugl-2, geht einher mit dem Auftreten und der Progression verschiedener epithelialer Tumorerkrankungen wie malignen Melanomen und Brust-, Kolon- oder Lungentumoren. Die exakte Funktion der Homologe Hugl-1 und Hugl-2 bezüglich der Regulation und Aufrechterhaltung der epithelialen Zellpolarität sowie ihre Rolle in der Genese humaner Tumore ist jedoch weitgehend unbekannt. Gänzlich unbekannt ist auch die Bedeutung von Hugl-1 und Hugl-2 als Polaritätsregulatoren für die Ausbildung und den Erhalt der T-Zellmorphologie und -funktion. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es daher, die Polaritäts- und Tumorsuppressorgene hugl-1 und hugl-2 in funktionellen Analysen mittels siRNA-vermitteltem Gen-Silencing in Epithelzellen und T-Lymphozyten zu charakterisieren. Darüber hinaus wurden die Funktionen und Eigenschaften von mgl-2, dem murinen Homologen von hugl-2, im Cre/loxP-vermittelten konditionalen Knockout Mausmodell in vivo analysiert.rnrnZur Charakterisierung der biologischen Effekte von Hugl-1 und Hugl-2 auf das Wachstumsverhalten, Migration und Invasion von Epithelzellen wurden in dieser Arbeit erfolgreich unterschiedliche shRNA-Expressionskonstrukte generiert sowie Hugl-supprimierte Zelllinien etabliert. In vitro Studien sowie in vivo Tumorigenizitätsanalysen lieferten übereinstimmend Hinweise darauf, dass verminderte Hugl-1- und Hugl-2-Expressionsspiegel eine signifikante Rolle in der Vermittlung invasiver und tumorigener Eigenschaften von Epithelzellen spielen. Dabei rief der Verlust beider Homologe deutlich stärkere Reaktionen hervor als die Suppression eines einzelnen Homologen. Zudem wiesen die Überexpression des Zellzyklusregulators Cyclin D1 sowie die Hyperproliferation von Hugl-1- und/oder Hugl-2-depletierten Epithelzellen auf eine wichtige Rolle der beiden Homologe in der Zellzyklusprogression und Zellproliferation hin. Ein geringer Expressionsstatus von Hugl-1 und -2 schien darüber hinaus mit einer verstärkten Resistenzbildung gegenüber Chemotherapeutika zu korrelieren. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte weiterhin gezeigt werden, dass die untersuchten T-Lymphozyten nur Hugl-1 exprimieren und dass letzteres notwendig für den F-Aktin-vermittelten Erhalt der T-Zellpolarität und -morphologie ist. Hugl-1-supprimierte, über voneinander unabhängige Signalwege (TCR- oder Chemokinrezeptor) stimulierte T-Lymphozyten wiesen eine bedeutende Störung der Lamellipodien- und Uropodausbildung auf und ließen eine Interaktion von Hugl-1 auf Ebene des F Aktins vermuten. Des Weiteren zeigte sich, dass der Polaritätsregulator Hugl-1 die CD3/TCR-induzierte Zelladhäsion positiv beeinflusst. Die Analyse der T-Zellmigration und -motilität offenbarte in Übereinstimmung dazu die Wichtigkeit von Hugl-1 für die Polarisierung und Migration der T-Zellen sowohl im Chemokingradienten als auch auf mDCs. rnrnFür die Aufklärung der funktionellen Rolle von mgl-2 in vivo wurde in dieser Arbeit eine Tamoxifen-induzierbare, Cre/loxP-vermittelte konditionale Mauslinie generiert und analysiert. Die mgl-2-deletierten Tiere wiesen weder signifikante phänotypische Unterschiede noch Abweichungen in der Organanatomie auf und ließen daher auf eine Kompensation durch das im Darmepithel koexprimierte und möglicherweise funktionell redundante mgl-1 Gen schließen.rn

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The most important property controlling the physicochemical behaviour of polyelectrolytes and their applicability in different fields is the charge density on the macromolecular chain. A polyelectrolyte molecule in solution may have an effective charge density which is smaller than the actual charge density determined from its chemical structure. In the present work an attempt has been made to quantitatively determine this effective charge density of a model polyelectrolyte by using light scattering techniques. Flexible linear polyelectrolytes with a Poly(2-Vinylpyridine) (2-PVP) backbone are used in the present study. The polyelectrolytes are synthesized by quaternizing the pyridine groups of 2-PVP by ethyl bromide to different quaternization degrees. The effect of the molar mass, degree of quaternization and solvent polarity on the effective charge is studied. The results show that the effective charge does not vary much with the polymer molar mass or the degree of quaternization. But a significant increase in the effective charge is observed when the solvent polarity is increased. The results do not obey the counterion condensation theory proposed by Manning. Based on the very low effective charges determined in this study, a new mechanism for the counterion condensation phenomena from a specific polyelectrolyte-counterion interaction is proposed

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Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen zählen weltweit zu den Hauptursachen, die zu frühzeitigem Tod führen. Pathophysiologisch liegt eine Gefäßwandverdickung durch Ablagerung arteriosklerotischer Plaques (Arteriosklerose) vor. Die molekulare Bildgebung mit den nuklearmedizinischen Verfahren SPECT und PET zielt darauf ab, minderperfundierte Myokardareale zu visualisieren, um den Krankheitsverlauf durch frühzeitige Therapie abschwächen zu können. Routinemäßig eingesetzt werden die SPECT-Perfusionstracer [99mTc]Sestamibi und [99mTc]Tetrofosmin. Zum Goldstandard für die Quantifizierung der Myokardperfusion werden allerdings die PET-Tracer [13N]NH3 und [15O]H2O, da eine absolute Bestimmung des Blutflusses in mL/min/g sowohl in der Ruhe als auch bei Belastung möglich ist. 2007 wurde [18F]Flurpiridaz als neuer Myokardtracer vorgestellt, dessen Bindung an den MC I sowohl in Ratten, Hasen, Primaten als auch in ersten klinischen Humanstudien eine selektive Myokardaufnahme zeigte. Um eine Verfügbarkeit des Radionuklids über einen Radionuklidgenerator gewährleisten zu können, sollten makrozyklische 68Ga-Myokard-Perfusionstracer auf Pyridaben-Basis synthetisiert und evaluiert werden. Die neue Tracer-Klasse setzte sich aus dem makrozyklischen Chelator, einem Linker und dem Insektizid Pyridaben als Targeting-Vektor zusammen. Struktur-Affinitätsbeziehungen konnten auf Grund von Variation des Linkers (Länge und Polarität), der Komplexladung (neutral und einfach positiv geladen), des Chelators (DOTA, NODAGA, DO2A) sowie durch einen Multivalenzansatz (Monomer und Dimer) aufgestellt werden. Insgesamt wurden 16 neue Verbindungen synthetisiert. Ihre 68Ga-Markierung wurde hinsichtlich pH-Wert, Temperatur, Vorläufermenge und Reaktionszeit optimiert. Die DOTA/NODAGA-Pyridaben-Derivate ließen sich mit niedrigen Substanzmengen (6 - 25 nmol) in 0,1 M HEPES-Puffer (pH 3,4) bei 95°C innerhalb 15 min mit Ausbeuten > 95 % markieren. Für die DO2A-basierenden Verbindungen bedurfte es einer mikrowellengestützen Markierung (300 W, 1 min, 150°C), um vergleichbare Ausbeuten zu erzielen. Die in vitro-Stabilitätstests aller Verbindungen erfolgten in EtOH, NaCl und humanem Serum. Es konnten keine Instabilitäten innerhalb 80 min bei 37°C festgestellt werden. Unter Verwendung der „shake flask“-Methode wurden die Lipophilien (log D = -1,90 – 1,91) anhand des Verteilungs-quotienten in Octanol/PBS-Puffer ermittelt. Die kalten Referenzsubstanzen wurden mit GaCl3 hergestellt und zur Bestimmung der IC50-Werte (34,1 µM – 1 µM) in vitro auf ihre Affinität zum MC I getestet. In vivo-Evaluierungen erfolgten mit den zwei potentesten Verbindungen [68Ga]VN160.MZ und [68Ga]VN167.MZ durch µ-PET-Aufnahmen (n=3) in gesunden Ratten über 60 min. Um die Organverteilung ermitteln zu können, wurden ex vivo-Biodistributionsstudien (n=3) vorgenommen. Sowohl die µ-PET-Untersuchungen als auch die Biodistributionsstudien zeigten, dass es bei [68Ga]VN167.MZ zwar zu einer Herzaufnahme kam, die jedoch eher perfusionsabhängig ist. Eine Retention des Tracers im Myokard konnte in geringem Umfang festgestellt werden.

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In dieser Arbeit werden formstabile, amphiphile, oberflächenstrukturierte Polyphenylendendrimere (PPDs) mit verschiedenen Oberflächenpolaritäten beschrieben. Die physikalisch-chemischen Eigenschaften dieser Makromoleküle wurden studiert, welche ein gutes Verständnis der Nanoumgebung amphiphiler PPDs lieferten. Auch lichtinduzierte Polaritätsänderung wurde untersucht. Mit dem Konzept einer gleichmäßigen Verteilung polarer Bereiche auf der Peripherie hydrophober PPPs gelang es, Transportsysteme für Fettsäuren und Zytostatika zu erzeugen, welche charakteristische Merkmale natürlicher Transportproteine wie Albumin in sich vereinen. Hierzu zählen eine stabile dreidimensionale Form, die Ausbildung von Bindungstaschen sowie eine definierte strukturierte Oberfläche aus hydrophilen und hydrophoben Bereichen. Die Verfügbarkeit von lipophilen Bindungstaschen übertrifft sogar die des Albumins. Im Gegensatz zu Polymeren kann die Wirkstoffaufnahme bei PPDs exakt bestimmt werden. Die Anpassung der peripheren Gruppen beeinflusst den zellulären Aufnahmemechanismus. Es konnten effiziente Zellaufnahmen in A549-Zellen sowie der Transport und die intrazelluläre Freisetzung von Doxorubicin erreicht werden. Manche PPDs bieten eine Größe und Architektur, die es ermöglicht, Endothelzellen des Gehirns zu durchdringen. Es wurde auch der andere Extremfall untersucht, indem alle polaren Gruppen auf einer Hemisphäre akkumuliert wurden. Zur Darstellung solcher Janus-Dendrimere wurde ein neues Synthesekonzept herausgearbeitet und die erhaltenen Janus-Dendrimere mittels Lichtstreuung untersucht, wobei definierte perlenschnurartige Aggregate gefunden wurden. Weiterhin wurden semifluorierte Amphiphile vorgestellt, welche die Möglichkeit zur Selbstorganisation durch Nanophasenseparation bieten.

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The prologue of this thesis (Chapter 1.0) gives a general overview on lactone based poly(ester) chemistry with a focus on advanced synthetic strategies for ring-opening polymerization, including the emerging field of organo catalysis. This section is followed by a presentation of the state-of the art regarding the two central fields of the thesis: (i) polyfunctional and branched poly(ester)s in Chapter 1.1 as well as (ii) the development of new poly(ester) based block copolymers with functional methacrylates (Chapter 1.2). Chapter 2 deals with the synthesis of new, non-linear poly(ester) structures. In Chapter 2.1, the synthesis of poly(lactide)-based multiarm stars, prepared via a grafting-from method, is described. The hyperbranched poly(ether)-poly(ol) poly(glycerol) is employed as a hydrophilic core molecule. The resulting star block copolymers exhibit potential as phase transfer agents and can stabilize hydrophilic dyes in a hydrophobic environment. In Chapter 2.2, this approach is expanded to poly(glycolide) multiarm star polymers. The problem of the poor solubility of linear poly(glycolide)s in common organic solvents combined with an improvement of the thermal properties has been approached by the reduction of the total chain length. In Chapter 2.3, the first successful synthesis of hyperbranched poly(lactide)s is presented. The ring-opening, multibranching copolymerization of lactide with the “inimer” 5HDON (a hydroxyl-functional lactone monomer) was carefully examined. Besides a precise molecular characterization involving the determination of the degree of branching, we were able to put forward a reaction model for the formation of branching during polymerization. Several innovative approaches to amphiphilic poly(ester)/poly(methacrylate)-based block copolymers are presented in the third part of the thesis (Chapter 3). Block copolymer build-up especially relies on the combination of ring-opening and living radical polymerization. Atom transfer radical polymerization has been successfully combined with lactide ring-opening, using a “double headed” initiator. This strategy allowed for the realization of poly(lactide)-block-poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) copolymers, which represent promising materials for tissue engineering scaffolds with anti-fouling properties (Chapter 3.1). The two-step/one-pot approach forgoes the use of protecting groups for HEMA by a careful selection of the reaction conditions. A series of potentially biocompatible and partially biodegradable homo- and block copolymers is described in Chapter 3.2. In order to create a block copolymer with a comparably strong hydrophilic character, a new acetal-protected glycerol monomethacrylate monomer (cis-1,3- benzylidene glycerol methacrylate/BGMA) was designed. The hydrophobic poly(BGMA) could be readily transformed into the hydrophilic and water-soluble poly(iso-glycerol methacrylate) (PIGMA) by mild acidic hydrolysis. Block copolymers of PIGMA and poly(lactide) exhibited interesting spherical aggregates in aqueous environment which could be significantly influenced by variation of the poly(lactide)s stereo-structure. In Chapter 3.3, pH-sensitive poly(ethylene glycol)-b-PBGMA copolymers are described. At slightly acidic pH values (pH 4/37°C), they decompose due to a polarity change of the BGMA block caused by progressing acetal cleavage. This stimuli-responsive behavior renders the system highly attractive for the targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs. In Chapter 3.4, which was realized in cooperation, the concept of biocompatible, amphiphilic poly(lactide) based polymer drug conjugates, was pursued. This was accomplished in the form of fluorescently labeled poly(HPMA)-b-poly(lactide) copolymers. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) of partially biodegradable block copolymer aggregates exhibited fast cellular uptake by human cervix adenocarcinoma cells without showing toxic effects in the examined concentration range (Chapter 4.1). The current state of further projects which will be pursued in future studies is addressed in Chapter 4. This covers the synthesis of biocompatible star block copolymers (Chapter 4.2) and the development of new methacrylate monomers for biomedical applications (Chapters 4.3 and 4.4). Finally, the further investigation of hydroxyl-functional lactones and carbonates which are promising candidates for the synthesis of new hydrophilic linear or hyperbranched biopolymers, is addressed in Chapter 4.5.

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Der Folsäure-basierte Radiotracer Etarfolatide (99mTc-EC 20) hat in der Vergangenheit sehr vielversprechende Ergebnisse im Bereich der frühzeitigen Diagnostik von Ovarialkarzinomen gezeigt. Einzelphotonen-Emissionscomputertomographie (SPECT) erlaubt dabei eine Visualisierung der Krankheit in einem sehr frühen Stadium – ermöglicht wird dies durch Folsäure, welche als Target Vektor dient. Um das erfolgreiche Prinzip der Radiofolate auf die Positronen-Emissionstomographie (PET) zu übertragen, welche eine noch höhere räumliche Auflösung ermöglicht, wurden in den letzten fünf Jahren bereits 18F-folate entwickelt. Deren hepatobiliären Exkretionsmuster, verursacht durch die relativ hohe Lipophilie der Strukturen, entsprachen jedoch nicht den Anforderungen. Eine optimierte Bioverteilung der Tracer in vivo kann durch eine generelle Erhöhung der Polarität erfolgen. Die Kombination aus einem polaren 68Ga-Komplex mit Folsäure als Target Vektor stellte den Fokus dieses Projektes dar. Ziel war die Entwicklung eines Radiofolates mit der Tendenz einer raschen renalen Ausscheidung und verringerter hepatobiliärer Anreicherung. Dazu wurde Folsäure regiospezifisch über ihre y-Säure an verschiedene bifunktionelle Chelatoren (BFCs) gekoppelt. Vier verschiedene Reaktionstypen wurden gewählt und durchgeführt: Cu-katalysierte sowie Cu-freie Click Reaktion, Amindbindung und Thioharnstoff Bildung. Es wurden sechs verschiedene Derivate erhalten und mit 68Ga radiomarkiert.

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The central objective of this work was to generate weakly coordinating cations of unprecedented molecular size providing an inherently stable hydrophobic shell around a central charge. It was hypothesized that divergent dendritic growth by means of thermal [4+2] Diels-Alder cycloaddition might represent a feasible synthetic method to circumvent steric constraints and enable a drastic increase in cation size.rnThis initial proposition could be verified: applying the divergent dendrimer synthesis to an ethynyl-functionalized tetraphenylphosphonium derivative afforded monodisperse cations with precisely nanoscopic dimensions for the first time. Furthermore, the versatile nature of the applied cascade reactions enabled a throughout flexible design and structural tuning of the desired target cations. The specific surface functionalization as well as the implementation of triazolyl-moieties within the dendrimer scaffold could be addressed by sophisticated variation of the employed building block units (see chapter 3). rnDue to the steric screening provided by their large, hydrophobic and shape-persistent polyphenylene shells, rigidly dendronized cations proved more weakly coordinating compared to their non-dendronized analogues. This hypothesis has been experimentally confirmed by means of dielectric spectroscopy (see chapter 4). It was demonstrated for a series of dendronized borate salts that the degree of ion dissociation increased with the size of the cations. The utilization of the very large phosphonium cations developed within this work almost achieved to separate the charge carriers about the Bjerrum length in solvents of low polarity, which was reflected by approaching near quantitative ion dissociation even at room temperature. In addition to effect the electrolyte behavior in solution, the steric enlargement of ions could be visualized by means of several crystal structure analyses. Thus an insight into lattice packing under the effect of extraordinary large cations could be gathered. rnAn essential theme of this work focused on the application of benzylphosphonium salts in the classical Wittig reaction, where the concept of dendronization served as synthetic means to introduce an exceptionally large polyphenylene substituent at the -position. The straightforward influence of this unprecedented bulky group on the Wittig stereochemistry was investigated by NMR-analysis of the resulting alkenes. Based on the obtained data a valuable explanation for the origin of the observed selectivity was brought in line with the up-to-date operating [2+2] cycloaddition mechanism. Furthermore, a reliable synthesis protocol for unsymmetrically substituted polyphenylene alkenes and stilbenes was established by the design of custom-built polyphenylene precursors (see chapter 5).rnFinally, fundamental experiments to functionalize a polymer chain with sterically shielded ionic groups either in the pending or internal position were outlined within this work. Thus, inherently hydrophobic polysalts shall be formed so that future research can invesigate their physical properties with regard to counter ion condensation and charge carrier mobility.rnIn summary, this work demonstrates how the principles of dendrimer chemistry can be applied to modify and specifically tailor the properties of salts. The numerously synthesized dendrimer-ions shown herein represent a versatile interface between classic organic and inorganic electrolytes, and defined macromolecular structures in the nanometer-scale. Furthermore the particular value of polyphenylene dendrimers in terms of a broad applicability was illustrated. This work accomplished in an interdisciplinary manner to give answer to various questions such as structural modification of ions, the resulting influence on the electrolyte behavior, as well as the stereochemical control of organic syntheses via polyphenylene phosphonium salts. rn

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La Sentiment analysis, nata nell'ambito dell’informatica, è una delle aree di ricerca più attive nel campo dell’analisi del linguaggio naturale e si è diffusa ampiamente anche in altri rami scientifici come ad esempio le scienze sociali, l’economia e il marketing. L’enorme diffusione della sentiment analysis coincide con la crescita dei cosiddetti social media: siti di commercio e recensioni di prodotti, forum di discussione, blog, micro-blog e di vari social network. L'obiettivo del presente lavoro di tesi è stato quello di progettare un sistema di sentiment analysis in grado di rilevare e classificare le opinioni e i sentimenti espressi tramite chat dagli utenti della piattaforma di video streaming Twitch.tv. Per impostare ed organizzare il lavoro, giungendo quindi alla definizione del sistema che ci si è proposti di realizzare, sono stati utilizzati vari modelli di analisi in particolare le recurrent neural networks (RNNLM) e sistemi di word embedding (word2vec),nello specifico i Paragraph Vectors, applicandoli, dapprima, su dati etichettati in maniera automatica attraverso l'uso di emoticon e, successivamente, su dati etichettati a mano.

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During development and regeneration of the mammalian nervous system, directional signals guide differentiating neurons toward their targets. Soluble neurotrophic molecules encode for preferential direction over long distances while the local topography is read by cells in a process requiring the establishment of focal adhesions. The mutual interaction between overlapping molecular and topographical signals introduces an additional level of control to this picture. The role of the substrate topography was demonstrated exploiting nanotechnologies to generate biomimetic scaffolds that control both the polarity of differentiating neurons and the alignment of their neurites. Here PC12 cells contacting nanogratings made of copolymer 2-norbornene ethylene (COC), were alternatively stimulated with Nerve Growth Factor, Forskolin, and 8-(4-chloro-phenylthio)-2'-O-methyladenosine-3',5'-cyclic (8CPT-2Me-cAMP) or with a combination of them. Topographical guidance was differently modulated by the alternative stimulation protocols tested. Forskolin stimulation reduced the efficiency of neurite alignment to the nanogratings. This effect was linked to the inhibition of focal adhesion maturation. Modulation of neurite alignment and focal adhesion maturation upon Forskolin stimulation depended on the activation of the MEK/ERK signaling but were PkA independent. Altogether, our results demonstrate that topographical guidance in PC12 cells is modulated by the activation of alternative neuronal differentiation pathways.