The Spread of free-riding behavior in a social network

We study a model where agents, located in a social network, decide whether to exert effort or not in experimenting with a new technology (or acquiring a new skill, innovating, etc.). We assume that agents have strong incentives to free ride on their neighbors' effort decisions. In the static version of the model efforts are chosen simultaneously. In equilibrium, agents exerting effort are never connected with each other and all other agents are connected with at least one agent exerting effort. We propose a mean-field dynamics in which agents choose in each period the best response to the last period's decisions of their neighbors. We characterize the equilibrium of such a dynamics and show how the pattern of free riders in the network depends on properties of the connectivity distribution.

Social norms, morals and self-interest as determinants of pro-environment behaviour.

This paper considers the role which selfish, moral and social incentives and pressures play in explaining the extent to which stated choices over pro-environment behaviours vary across individuals. The empirical context is choices over household waste contracts and recycling actions in Poland. A theoretical model is used to show how cost-based motives and the desire for a positive self- and social image combine to determine the utility from alternative choices of recycling behaviour. We then describe a discrete choice experiment designed to empirically investigate the effects such drivers have on stated choices. Using a latent class model, we distinguish three types of individual who are described as duty-orientated recyclers, budget recyclers and homo oeconomicus. These groups vary in their preferences for how frequently waste is collected, and the number of categories into which household waste must be recycled. Our results have implications for the design of future policies aimed at improving participation in recycling schemes.

Rates of cultural change and patterns of cultural accumulation in stochastic models of social transmission.

Cultural variation in a population is affected by the rate of occurrence of cultural innovations, whether such innovations are preferred or eschewed, how they are transmitted between individuals in the population, and the size of the population. An innovation, such as a modification in an attribute of a handaxe, may be lost or may become a property of all handaxes, which we call "fixation of the innovation." Alternatively, several innovations may attain appreciable frequencies, in which case properties of the frequency distribution-for example, of handaxe measurements-is important. Here we apply the Moran model from the stochastic theory of population genetics to study the evolution of cultural innovations. We obtain the probability that an initially rare innovation becomes fixed, and the expected time this takes. When variation in cultural traits is due to recurrent innovation, copy error, and sampling from generation to generation, we describe properties of this variation, such as the level of heterogeneity expected in the population. For all of these, we determine the effect of the mode of social transmission: conformist, where there is a tendency for each naïve newborn to copy the most popular variant; pro-novelty bias, where the newborn prefers a specific variant if it exists among those it samples; one-to-many transmission, where the variant one individual carries is copied by all newborns while that individual remains alive. We compare our findings with those predicted by prevailing theories for rates of cultural change and the distribution of cultural variation.

Social sensing for psychology: Automated interpersonal behavior assessment

In this article, we show how the use of state-of-the-art methods in computer science based on machine perception and learning allows the unobtrusive capture and automated analysis of interpersonal behavior in real time (social sensing). Given the high ecological validity of the behavioral sensing, the ease of behavioral-cue extraction for large groups over long observation periods in the field, the possibility of investigating completely new research questions, and the ability to provide people with immediate feedback on behavior, social sensing will fundamentally impact psychology.

Nonverbal social sensing in action: Unobtrusive recording and extracting of nonverbal behavior in social interactions illustrated with a research example

Nonverbal behavior coding is typically conducted by "hand". To remedy this time and resource intensive undertaking, we illustrate how nonverbal social sensing, defined as the automated recording and extracting of nonverbal behavior via ubiquitous social sensing platforms, can be achieved. More precisely, we show how and what kind of nonverbal cues can be extracted and to what extent automated extracted nonverbal cues can be validly obtained with an illustrative research example. In a job interview, the applicant's vocal and visual nonverbal immediacy behavior was automatically sensed and extracted. Results show that the applicant's nonverbal behavior can be validly extracted. Moreover, both visual and vocal applicant nonverbal behavior predict recruiter hiring decision, which is in line with previous findings on manually coded applicant nonverbal behavior. Finally, applicant average turn duration, tempo variation, and gazing best predict recruiter hiring decision. Results and implications of such a nonverbal social sensing for future research are discussed.

Measuring effects of strategic utilization of social media in business-to-business marketing: Case Greenlux Finland Oy

Utilization of social media is increasingly common in B2B marketing. Social media is an efficient and cheap marketing and communication channel available for everyone, and thus extremely attractive marketing medium. The more companies get involved in social media the more failures are reported. It is not enough for a company to just be present in social media. Succeeding on it requires hard work, investing time and money, and ability to measure and to monitor performance. With an increasing number of companies failing in utilizing social media, together with lack of research on strategic utilization of social media focusing on B2B marketing, measuring, and monitoring create a purpose for this research. The aim of this research is to discover methods for measuring and monitoring effects of strategic utilization of social media in B2B marketing. Most relevant financial and non-financial indicators are discussed, and the methods by which these can be monitored and measured. In addition, effects of strategic utilization of social media on the case company are measured and analyzed. The research methodology used in this research is a participatory action research, which includes elements of both qualitative and quantitative research methods. The case company examined in the research provides a unique opportunity to follow through all phases of strategic utilization of social media for B2B marketing purposes concluding real effects of social media to the case company, and thus gain a deep understanding about this new marketing medium in the perspective of B2B marketing. Duration of the research period is seven months. During this time, information is collected, measured, and analyzed. Case company does not have any other marketing activities simultaneously which makes it possible to examine social media apart from effects of other visible marketing activities. Effects of strategic utilization of social media can be monitored and measured in many ways. Methods that should be used depend on goals set for social media. Fundamental nature of social media requires multidimensional assessment, and thus effects should be measured, and monitored considering both financial and non-financial indicators. The results implicates that effects of strategic utilization of social media are relatively wide ranged. According to the findings, social media affects positively on brand, number of web page visitors, visitor behavior, and on distribution of awareness. According to investment calculations social media is a legitimate investment for case company. Results also implicate that by using social media case company gains conversation, arouses interest, gets attention, and creates interactivity. In addition and as a side note, winter holiday season appears to have a great effect on social media activity of B2B companies’ representatives.

Backpacker 2.0 - Contemporary backpackers and their use of social media as an information and communication platform

Long-term independent budget travel to countries far away has become increasingly common over the last few decades, and backpacking has now entered the tourism mainstream. Nowadays, backpackers are a very important segment of the global travel market. Backpacking is a type of tourism that involves a lot of information search activities. The Internet has become a major source of information as well as a platform for tourism business transactions. It allows travelers to gain information very effortlessly and to learn about tourist destinations and products directly from other travelers in the form of electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM). Social media has penetrated and changed the backpacker market, as now modern travelers can stay connected to people at home, read online recommendations, and organize and book their trips very independently. In order to create a wider understanding on modern-day backpackers and their information search and share behavior in the Web 2.0 era, this thesis examined contemporary backpackers and their use of social media as an information and communication platform. In order to achieve this goal, three sub-objectives were identified: 1. to describe contemporary backpacker tourism 2. to examine contemporary backpackers’ travel information search and share behavior 3. to explore the impacts of new information and communications technologies and Web 2.0 on backpacker tourism The empirical data was gathered with an online survey, thus the method of analysis was mainly quantitative, and a qualitative method was used for a brief analysis of open questions. The research included both descriptive and analytical approaches, as the goal was to describe modern-day backpackers, and to examine possible interdependencies between information search and share behavior and background variables. The interdependencies were tested for statistical significance with the help of five research hypotheses. The results suggested that backpackers no longer fall under the original backpacker definitions described some decades ago. Now, they are mainly short-term travelers, whose trips resemble more those of mainstream tourists. They use communication technologies very actively, and particularly social media. Traditional information sources, mainly guide books and recommendations from friends, are of great importance to them but also eWOM sources are widely used in travel decision making. The use of each source varies according to the stage of the trip. All in all, Web 2.0 and new ICTs have transformed the backpacker tourism industry in many ways. Although the experience has become less authentic in some travelers’ eyes, the backpacker culture is still recognizable.

Understanding Online Game Players' Post-adoption Behavior: an Investigation of Social Network Games in China

Retaining players and re-attracting switching players has long been a central topic for SNG providers with regard to the post-adoption stage of playing an online game. However, there has not been much research which has explored players’ post-adoption behavior by incorporating the continuance intention and the switching intention. In addition, traditional IS continuance theories were mainly developed to investigate users’ continued use of utilitarian IS, and thus they may fall short when trying to explain the continued use of hedonic IS. Furthermore, compared to the richer literature on IS continuance, far too little attention has been paid to IS switching, leading to a dearth of knowledge on the subject, despite the increased incidence of the switching phenomenon in the IS field. By addressing the limitations of prior literature, this study seeks to examine the determinants of SNG players’ two different post-adoption behaviors, including the continuance intention and the switching intention. This study takes a positivist approach and uses survey research method to test five proposed research models based on Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2; Use and Gratification Theory; Push-Pull-Mooring model; Cognitive Dissonance Theory; and a self-developed model respectively with empirical data collected from the SNG players of one of the biggest SNG providers in China. A total of 3919 valid responses and 541 valid responses were used to examine the continuance intention and the switching intention, respectively. SEM is utilized as the data analysis method. The proposed research models are supported by the empirical data. The continuance intention is determined by enjoyment, fantasy, escapism, social interaction, social presence, social influence, achievement and habit. The switching intention is determined by enjoyment, satisfaction, subjective norms, descriptive norms, alternative attractiveness, the need for variety, change experience, and adaptation cost. This study contributes to IS theories in three important ways. Firstly, it shows IS switching should be included in IS post-adoption research together with IS continuance. Secondly, a modern IS is usually multi-functional and SNG players have multiple reasons for using a SNG, thus a player’s beliefs about the hedonic, social and utilitarian perceptions of their continued use of the SNG exert significant effects on the continuance intention. Thirdly, the determinants of the switch ing intention mainly exert push, pull, and mooring effects. Players’ beliefs about their current SNG and the available alternatives, as well as their individual characteristics are all significant determinants of the switching intention. SNG players combine these effects in order to formulate the switching intention. Finally, this study presents limitations and suggestions for future research.

Functional, Social and Emotional Values as Determinants of Environmentally Responsible Media Consumption

The primary purpose of this research is to develop an enhanced understanding of how consumption values influence environmentally responsible consumption of print and digital media. Theoretical elaboration considers the associations of functional, social and emotional consumption values, green consumer segmentation and media consumption. Additionally, the purpose is to identify consumer perceptions of print and digital media’s environmental responsibility. Empirical analysis was based on qualitative interviews with a sample of 20 Finnish consumers categorized in two segments: young adults and middle aged consumers. Primary data collection was conducted through individual, semi-structured interviews. To analyze the respondents’ approach on the topic, the interviews disclosed themes of media consumption, perceived environmental friendliness of media, norms of behavior and consumers’ general consumption patterns. The results implicate functional value dominated the consumption decision-making process both in a general level and in media consumption. In addition to functional value, environmental responsibility does provide consumers with both emotional and social values. Analysis on perceived environmental responsibility of media demonstrated consumers generally perceive digital media as an environmentally responsible alternative because it does not create physical paper waste. Nevertheless, the perceptions of environmental responsibility and media consumption patterns lacked a consistent connection. Though, both theory and empirical results indicated an average consumer lacks a comprehensive understanding of digital and print media’s life-cycle and hence their environmental advantages and disadvantages.

Social condition affects hormone secretion and exploratory behavior in rats

Studies of behavior, endocrinology and physiology have described experiments in which animals housed in groups or in isolation were normally tested individually. The isolation of the animal from its group for testing is perhaps the most common situation used today in experimental procedures, i.e., there is no consideration of the acute stress which occurs when the animal is submitted to a situation different from that it is normally accustomed to, i.e., group living. In the present study, we used 90 male 120-day-old rats (Rattus norvegicus) divided into 5 groups of 18 animals, which were housed 3 per cage, in a total of 6 cages. The animals were tested individually or with their groups for exploratory behavior. Hormones were determined by radioimmunoassay using specific kits. The results showed statistically significant differences between testing conditions in terms of behavior and of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH: from 116.8 ± 15.27 to 88.77 ± 18.74 when in group and to 159.6 ± 11.53 pg/ml when isolated), corticosterone (from 561.01 ± 77.04 to 1036.47 ± 79.81 when in group and to 784.71 ± 55.88 ng/ml when isolated), luteinizing hormone (from 0.84 ± 0.09 to 0.58 ± 0.05 when in group and to 0.52 ± 0.06 ng/ml when isolated) and prolactin (from 5.18 ± 0.33 to 9.37 ± 0.96 when in group and to 10.18 ± 1.23 ng/ml when isolated) secretion, but not in terms of follicle-stimulating hormone or testosterone secretion. The most important feature observed was that in each cage there was one animal with higher ACTH levels than the other two; furthermore, the exploratory behavior of this animal was different, indicating the occurrence of almost constant higher vigilance in this animal (latency to leave the den in group: 99.17 ± 34.95 and isolated: 675.3 ± 145.3 s). The data indicate that in each group there is an animal in a peculiar situation and its behavior can be detected by ACTH determination in addition to behavioral performance.

Integrating corporate social responsibility into business in Finnish consumer goods companies

The motives for this study originated from the notion that surprisingly little academic literature is found on actually managing and putting corporate social responsibility (CSR) into practice, in comparison with the definitions and frameworks of the concept itself. Regardless of the author, CSR has been considered consisting of three dimensions: economic, social and environmental. The question behind the three dimensions has always been whether socially and environmentally responsible behavior can lead to increased economic performance and improve the competitiveness of a company. Most of the current CSR development has related to the quantification of environmental and social performance in order to review these along with the established financial key ratios, which are based on the law and the reporting obligation of the companies. However, the previous research has mainly focused on US companies whereas studies with a European viewpoint, let alone Nordic, have been mostly lacking. Furthermore, it has been discovered recently that the integration of corporate responsibility into business is identified as the greatest challenge in CSR management in Finnish large companies. Therefore the integration of CSR into business in Finnish consumer goods companies provided an interesting, topical and somewhat obscure purpose for this study. This was further divided into three research questions concerning the reasons for CSR engagement, the role of the stakeholders and the practice of corporate responsibility. This study did not aim to build a new theory; instead an explorative viewpoint was regarded more appropriate. Accordingly, qualitative research approach and case study design were adopted in the study. Semi-structured theme interviews were used as a primary data collection method and complemented with secondary data such as websites, responsibility reports and another recent CSR study. There were four Finnish managers as interviewees of whom three presented companies and one non-profit organization. The results were somewhat convergent but differences arose as a result of the companies being at different stages as regards corporate responsibility. However, this provided only more insight into the implementation of CSR. The voluntary CSR initiatives, responsibility reporting, stakeholders and CSR management were identified as the most important viewpoints on the practical side of CSR, besides a key requirement for the integration of CSR into business to be credible was found to be a favorable management attitude. Based on the findings of this study it was admitted that giving concrete advice on CSR management is really a challenge and there is no one generally accepted and right manner to integrate corporate responsibility successfully into business.

Deinstitutionalization and its Effects on Social Inclusion, Choice-Making, Adaptive and Maladaptive Behavior for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities: Case Studies Analysis

In the past three decades institutions for persons with intellectual disabilities (ID) have been downsizing and closing in Ontario, Canada. This trend is reflective of the changes that have occurred in society. As of March 2009 the last institution operated by the Ontario government for persons with ID closed, placing the remaining approximately 1000 persons into the community. The current study was an analysis of part of one study in a four-study research project, called the Facilities Initiative Study, to explore the impact of the closures on the lives of individuals who have been reintegrated into community settings. The goal of the current case study analysis was to describe the impact of changes in social inclusion, choice-making/autonomy, and adaptive/maladaptive functioning of four individuals prior to and following transition to the community. The results suggested that, in most cases, community integration was related to more social inclusion opportunities and autonomy in choice-making, a wider range of adaptive behaviors and fewer maladaptive behaviors. In some cases, the evidence suggested that some of these indices of quality of life were not improving. Overall, the study found that the differences observed were unique to each of the individuals who participated in the case study analysis. Some generalized themes were generated that can be applied to future deinstitutionalization endeavors.

Job Demands and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Roles of Organizational Commitment and Social Interaction

Drawing from the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model and research on social exchange relationships, this study investigates the impact of three job demands (work overload, interpersonal conflict, and dissatisfaction with the organization’s current situation) on employees’ organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), the hitherto unexplored mediating role of organizational commitment in the link between job demands and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), as well as how this mediating effect might be moderated by social interaction. Using a multi-source, two-wave research design, surveys were administered to 707 employees and their supervisors in a Mexican-based organization. The hypotheses were tested with hierarchical regression analysis. The results indicate a direct negative relationship between interpersonal conflict and OCB, and a mediating effect of organizational commitment for interpersonal conflict and dissatisfaction with the organization’s current situation. Further, social interaction moderates the mediating effect of organizational commitment for each of the three job demands such that the mediating effect is weaker at higher levels of social interaction. The study suggests that organizations aiming to instill OCB among their employees should match the immediate work context surrounding their task execution with an internal environment that promotes informal relationship building.

Genes related to sex steroids, neural growth, and social-emotional behavior are associated with autistic traits, empathy, and Asperger syndrome

Genetic studies of autism spectrum conditions (ASC) have mostly focused on the "low functioning" severe clinical subgroup, treating it as a rare disorder. However, ASC is now thought to be relatively common ( approximately 1%), and representing one end of a quasi-normal distribution of autistic traits in the general population. Here we report a study of common genetic variation in candidate genes associated with autistic traits and Asperger syndrome (AS). We tested single nucleotide polymorphisms in 68 candidate genes in three functional groups (sex steroid synthesis/transport, neural connectivity, and social-emotional responsivity) in two experiments. These were (a) an association study of relevant behavioral traits (the Empathy Quotient (EQ), the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ)) in a population sample (n=349); and (b) a case-control association study on a sample of people with AS, a "high-functioning" subgroup of ASC (n=174). 27 genes showed a nominally significant association with autistic traits and/or ASC diagnosis. Of these, 19 genes showed nominally significant association with AQ/EQ. In the sex steroid group, this included ESR2 and CYP11B1. In the neural connectivity group, this included HOXA1, NTRK1, and NLGN4X. In the socio-responsivity behavior group, this included MAOB, AVPR1B, and WFS1. Fourteen genes showed nominally significant association with AS. In the sex steroid group, this included CYP17A1 and CYP19A1. In the socio-emotional behavior group, this included OXT. Six genes were nominally associated in both experiments, providing a partial replication. Eleven genes survived family wise error rate (FWER) correction using permutations across both experiments, which is greater than would be expected by chance. CYP11B1 and NTRK1 emerged as significantly associated genes in both experiments, after FWER correction (P<0.05). This is the first candidate-gene association study of AS and of autistic traits. The most promising candidate genes require independent replication and fine mapping.

the implication of social cognition for experimental economics From the issue entitled "Special issue on Experimental economics and the social embedding of economic behavior and cognition"

Can human social cognitive processes and social motives be grasped by the methods of experimental economics? Experimental studies of strategic cognition and social preferences contribute to our understanding of the social aspects of economic decisions making. Yet, papers in this issue argue that the social aspects of decision-making introduce several difficulties for interpreting the results of economic experiments. In particular, the laboratory is itself a social context, and in many respects a rather distinctive one, which raises questions of external validity.