Overwintering of Sclerotium rolfsii and S-rolfsii var. delphinii in different latitudes of the United States

Previously known only from the southern United States, hosta petiole rot recently appeared in the northern United States. Sclerotium rolfsii var. delphinii is believed to be the predominant petiole rot pathogen in the northern United States, whereas S. rolfsii is most prevalent in the southern United States. In order to test the hypothesis that different tolerance to climate extremes affects the geographic distribution of these fungi, the survival of S. rolfsii and S. rolfsii var. delphinii in the northern and southeastern United States was investigated. At each of four locations, nylon screen bags containing sclerotia were placed on the surface of bare soil and at 20-cm depth. Sclerotia were recovered six times from November 2005 to July 2006 in North Dakota and Iowa, and from December 2005 to August 2006 in North Carolina and Georgia. Survival was estimated by quantifying percentage of sclerotium survival on carrot agar. Sclerotia of S. rolfsii var. delphinii survived until at least late July in all four states. In contrast, no S. rolfsii sclerotia survived until June in North Dakota or Iowa, whereas 18.5% survived until August in North Carolina and 10.3% survived in Georgia. The results suggest that inability to tolerate low temperature extremes limits the northern range of S. rolfsii.

Stone fruit injuries and damage at the wholesale market of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Mechanical injuries and diseases in stone fruit are important causes for market rejection. The objectives of this research were to quantify and characterize the mechanical injuries and diseases in peaches, nectarines and plums at Sao Paulo`s wholesale market, the largest in Brazil. Incidence of injuries was assessed weekly in 1 % of the marketed fruit (2973 fruit/week), from September to December in 2003 and 2004. Mechanical injuries were the most frequent injuries in both years, ranging from 8.73% (plum) to 44.5% (nectarine) of injured fruit. There was a significant positive correlation between the incidence of postharvest mechanical injuries and postharvest diseases. Incidence of postharvest diseases varied from 2.5% to 6.6%. Cladosporium rot (Cladosporium sp.) and brown rot (Monilinia fructicola) were the most frequent diseases, and were mostly detected in the apexes of nectarines and peaches. Aurora (peach), Sunraycer (nectarine) and Gulfblaze (plum) varieties were the most susceptible to injuries and diseases. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Determination of volatiles produced during radiation processing in Laurus cinnamomum

In order to protect food from pathogenic microorganisms as well as increase its shelf-life, while keeping sensorial properties (e.g., odor and taste), which are important properties required by spice buyers, it is necessary to analyze volatile formation from irradiation of medicinal and food herbs. Possible changes in the odor of these herbs are evaluated by characterizing different radiation doses and effects on sensorial properties, in order to allow better application of the irradiation technology. The aim of the present study was to analyze volatile formation on cinnamon (Laurus cinnamomum) samples after gamma irradiation. These samples were irradiated into plastic packages using a (60)Co facility. Radiation doses applied were 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 kGy. For the analysis of the samples, solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was applied, while for the analysis of volatile compounds, CG/MS. Spice irradiation showed the highest decrease in volatile compounds. For L. cinnamomum, the irradiation decreased volatile compounds by nearly 56% and 89.5%, respectively, comparing to volatile from a sample which had not been previously irradiated. Crown Copyright (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Production of a collagenase from Candida albicans URM3622

Culture conditions (pH, time, temperature, inoculum size, orbital agitation speed and substrate concentration) for an extracellular collagenase produced by Candida albicans URM3622 were studied using three experimental designs (one 2(6-2) fractionary factorial and two 2(3) full factorial). The analysis of the 2(6-2) fractionary design data indicated that agitation speed and substrate concentration had the most significant effect on collagenase production. Based on these results, two successive 2(3) full factorial design experiments were run in which the effects of substrate concentration, orbital agitation speed and pH were further studied. These two sets of experiments showed that all variables chosen were significant for the enzyme production, with the maximum collagenolytic activity of 6.8 +/- 0.4 U achieved at pH 7.0 with an orbital agitation speed of 160 rpm and 2% substrate concentration. Maximum collagenolytic activity was observed at pH 8.2 and 45 degrees C. The collagenase was stable within a pH range of 7.2-8.2 and over a temperature range of 28-45 degrees C. These results clearly indicate that C. albicans URM3622 is a potential resource for collagenase production and could be of interest for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industry. Crown Copyright (C) 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Photocytotoxic activity of a nitrosyl phthalocyanine ruthenium complex - A system capable of producing nitric oxide and singlet oxygen

The synthesis, structural aspects, pharmacological assays, and in vitro photoinduced cytotoxic properties of [Ru(NO)(ONO)(pc)] (pc = phthalocyanine) are described. Its biological effect on the B16F10 cell line was studied in the presence and absence of visible light irradiation. At comparable irradiation levels, [Ru(NO) (ONO)(pc)] was more effective than [Ru(pc)] at inhibiting cell growth, suggesting that occurrence of nitric oxide release following singlet oxygen production upon light irradiation may be an important mechanism by which the nitrosyl ruthenium complex exhibits enhanced biological activity in cells. Following visible light activation, the [Ru(NO)(ONO)(pc)] complex displayed increased potency in B16F10 cells upon modifications to the photoinduced dose; indeed, enhanced potency was detected when the nitrosyl ruthenium complex was encapsulated in a drug delivery system. The liposome containing the [Ru(NO)(ONO)(pc)] complex was over 25% more active than the corresponding ruthenium complex in phosphate buffer solution. The activity of the complex was directly proportional to the ruthenium amount present inside the cell, as determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that the photocytotoxic activity was mainly due to apoptosis. Furthermore, the vasorelaxation induced by [Ru(NO)(ONO)(pc)], proposed as NO carrier, was studied in rat isolated aorta. The observed vasodilation was concentration-dependent. Taken together, the present findings demonstrate that the [Ru(NO)(ONO)(pc)] complex induces vascular relaxation and could be a potent anti-tumor agent. Nitric oxide release following singlet oxygen production upon visible light irradiation on a nitrosyl ruthenium complex produces two radicals and may elicit phototoxic responses that may find useful applications in photodynamic therapy. Crown Copyright (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Iron(III) and iron(II) complexes of 1-thia-4,7-diazacyclononane ([9]aneN(2)S) and 1,4-dithia-7-azacyclononane ([9]aneNS(2)). X-Ray structural analyses, magnetic susceptibility, Mossbauer, EPR and electronic spectroscopy

The complexes [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](2), [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](3) and [Fe([9]aneNS(2))(2)][ClO4](2) ([9]aneN(2)S = 1-thia-4. 7-diazacyclononane and [9]aneNS(2) = 1,4-dithia-7-azacyclononane) have been prepared and the latter two characterised by X-ray crystallography. The Mossbauer spectra (isomer shift/mm s(-1), quadrupole splitting/mm s(-1), 4.2 K) for [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](2) (0.52, 0.57), [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](3) (0.25, 2.72) and [Fe([9]aneNS(2))(2)][ClO4](2) (0.43, 0.28) are typical for iron(II) and iron(III) complexes. Variable-temperature susceptibility measurements for [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](2) (2-300 K) revealed temperature-dependent behaviour in both the solid state [2.95 mu(B) (300 K)-0.5 mu(B) (4.2 K)] and solution (Delta H degrees 20-22 kJ mol(-1), Delta S degrees 53-60 J mol(-1) K-1). For [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](3) in the solid state [2.3 mu(B) (300 K)-1.9 mu(B) (4.2 K)] the magnetic data were fit to a simple model (H = -lambda L . S + mu L-z) to give the spin-orbit coupling constant (lambda) of -260 +/- 10 cm(-1). The solid-state X-band EPR spectrum of [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](3) revealed axial symmetry (g(perpendicular to) = 2.607, g(parallel to) = 1.599). Resolution of g(perpendicular to) into two components at Q-band frequencies indicated a rhombic distortion. The low-temperature single-crystal absorption spectra of [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](2) and [Fe([9]aneNS(2))(2)][ClO4](2) exhibited additional bands which resembled pseudotetragonal low-symmetry splitting of the parent octahedral (1)A(1g) --> T-1(2g) and (1)A(1g) ---> T-1(1g) transitions. However, the magnitude of these splittings was too large, requiring 10Dq for the thioether donors to be significantly larger than for the amine donors. Instead, these bands were tentatively assigned to weak, low-energy S --> Fe-II charge-transfer transitions. Above 200 K, thermal occupation of the high-spin T-5(2g) ground state resulted in observation of the T-5(2g) --> E-5(g) transition in the crystal spectrum of [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](2). From a temperature-dependence study, the separation of the low-spin (1)A(1g) and high-spin T-5(2g) ground states was approximately 1700 cm(-1). The spectrum of the iron(III) complex [Fe([9]aneN(2)S)(2)][ClO4](3) is consistent with a low-spin d(5) configuration.

Changes in the racial composition of Phytophthora sojae in Australia between 1979 and 1996

Surveys of commercial soybean fields, disease nurseries, and trial plots of soybean were conducted throughout eastern Australia between 1979 and 1996, and 694 isolates of Phytophthora sojae were collected and classified into races. Fourteen races, 1, 2, 4, 10, 15, and 25, and eight new races, 46 to 53, were identified, but only races 1, 4, 15, 25, 46, and 53 were found in commercial fields. Races 1 and 15 were the only races found in commercial fields in the soybean-growing areas of Australia up until 1989, with race 1 being the dominant race. Race 4 was found in central New South Wales in 1989 on cultivars with the Rps1a gene, and it is now the dominant race in central and southern New South Wales. Races 46 and 53 have only been found once, in southern New South Wales, and race 25 was identified in the same region in 1994 on a cultivar with the Rps1k gene. Only races 1 and 15 have been found in the northern soybean-growing regions, with the latter dominating, which coincides with the widespread use of cultivars with the Rps2 gene. Changes in the race structure of the P. sojae population from commercial fields in Australia follow the deployment of specific resistance genes.

Architecture and morphogenesis of grain sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench

Plant architecture has been neglected in most studies of biomass allocation in crops. To help redress this situation for grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), we used a 3D digitiser to measure the dimensions and orientations of vegetative and reproductive structures and derived thermal time-based functions for architectural changes during morphogenesis. Our plants, which were grown in a greenhouse, controlled environment cabinets and the field, covered a large, three-fold, size range when mature. This allowed us to detect some general architectural relationships and to fit morphogenetic functions common across the size range we observed. For example, the relationship between the lengths of successive fully-expanded leaves within a plant was nearly constant for all plants. The lengths of existing leaf blades were accurate predictors of the lengths of up to six subsequently-formed blades in our plants. Similar constant relationships were detected for internode lengths in the panicle and for heights above ground of the collars of successive leaves, even though these traits varied a lot between growth conditions. We suggest that such architectural relationships may be used to link the effect of previous growth conditions to future growth potential, and in that way to predict future partitioning. Our results provide the basis for a preliminary model of sorghum morphogenesis which could eventually become useful in conjunction with crop models by allowing resource acquisition to be related to changes in plant architecture during development. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Gene and genotypic diversity of Phytophthora cinnamomi in South Africa and Australia revealed by DNA polymorphisms

Phytophthora cinnamomi isolates from South Africa and Australia were compared to assess genetic differentiation between the two populations. These two populations were analysed for levels of phenotypic diversity using random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) and gene and genotypic diversity using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). Sixteen RAPD markers from four decanucleotide Operon primers and 34 RFLP alleles from 15 putative loci were used. A few isolates from Papua New Guinea known to posses alleles different from Australian isolates were also included for comparative purposes. South African and Australian P. cinnamomi populations were almost identical with an extremely low level of genetic distance between them (D-m = 0.003). Common features for the two populations include shared alleles, low levels of phenotypic/genotypic diversity, high clonality, and low observed and expected levels of heterozygosity. Furthermore, relatively high levels of genetic differentiation between mating type populations (D-m South Africa = 0.020 and D-m Australia = 0.025 respectively), negative fixation indices, and significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, all provided evidence for the lack of frequent sexual reproduction in both populations. The data strongly suggest that both the South African and Australian P. cinnamomi populations are introduced.

Determining forest structural attributes using an inverted geometric-optical model in mixed eucalypt forests, Southeast Queensland, Australia

The Montreal Process indicators are intended to provide a common framework for assessing and reviewing progress toward sustainable forest management. The potential of a combined geometrical-optical/spectral mixture analysis model was assessed for mapping the Montreal Process age class and successional age indicators at a regional scale using Landsat Thematic data. The project location is an area of eucalyptus forest in Emu Creek State Forest, Southeast Queensland, Australia. A quantitative model relating the spectral reflectance of a forest to the illumination geometry, slope, and aspect of the terrain surface and the size, shape, and density, and canopy size. Inversion of this model necessitated the use of spectral mixture analysis to recover subpixel information on the fractional extent of ground scene elements (such as sunlit canopy, shaded canopy, sunlit background, and shaded background). Results obtained fron a sensitivity analysis allowed improved allocation of resources to maximize the predictive accuracy of the model. It was found that modeled estimates of crown cover projection, canopy size, and tree densities had significant agreement with field and air photo-interpreted estimates. However, the accuracy of the successional stage classification was limited. The results obtained highlight the potential for future integration of high and moderate spatial resolution-imaging sensors for monitoring forest structure and condition. (C) Elsevier Science Inc., 2000.

An economic evaluation of plasma production via erythroplasmapheresis and whole blood collection

This paper presents cost-effectiveness analyses (CEAs) of plasma collection via two alternative methods: whole blood collection (WBC) and erythroplasmapheresis collection (EPC). The objective of the study is to provide an answer to the question 'What is the least-cost method of plasma production'. This question is answered, both from the viewpoint of the blood collection agency (using financial CEA) and from that of 'society' as a whole (using economic CEA). We employ detailed financial data and economic survey data for collections made by a blood collection agency and to WBC and EPC donors in Brisbane, Australia. The results indicate that, despite the superior yield provided by EPC, WBC is actually more cost-effective. This result is robust to thorough sensitivity analysis and arises regardless of whether an economic or financial perspective is taken. We conclude that, ceteris paribus, the cost of recruiting new plasma donors would need to be quite substantial for marginal investments in EPC to be considered cost-effective. Crown Copyright (C) 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effects of alkalis, oxidants and urea on the nutritive value of rhodes grass (Chloris gayana cv. Callide)

Two in sacco experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact on the nutritive value of rhodes grass hay (Chloris gayana cv. Callide) of treatment with alkalis or oxidants. In Experiment 1, three alkalis (Ca(OH)(2), NaOH, CaO) and two oxidants (NaOCl and H2O2) were applied at levels of 0, 20, 40, 60 or 80 g/kg of dry matter (DM). NaOH, Ca(OH)(2) and CaO had negative linear effects (P < 0.05) on the neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content and positive linear effects (P < 0.05) on the 48 h in sacco disappearances of DM, organic matter (OM), NDF and acid detergent fibre (ADF). NaOCl reduced (P < 0.05) NDF content but had no effect (P > 0.05) on the in sacco disappearances. H2O2 had no effect (P > 0.05) on the composition or digestibility of rhodes grass hay. In Experiment 2, effects of urea (0, 20, 40, 60 and 80 g urea/kg DM) and water (250, 500 and 750 g/kg DM) treatment of rhodes grass hay were examined in a 5 x 3 factorial experiment. Significant interactions between water and urea (P < 0.05) occurred for concentrations of crude protein (CP) and NDF, and 48 h in sacco disappearances of DM, OM (OMD) and NDE The combinations of water (g/kg DM) and urea (g/kg DM) that resulted in the highest concentrations of CP (281 g/kg DM) and OMD (747 g/kg DM) were 250 + 80 and 500 + 80, respectively. NaOH, Ca(OH)(2), CaO and urea significantly alter the NDF content and digestibility of rhodes grass hay, and urea also increases its CP content. Overall, NaOH was the most efficacious, followed by Ca(OH)(2), CaO, urea, NaOCl and H2O2. Crown Copyright (C) 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Bringing the state to England: Andrew Tooke's translation of Samuel Pufendorf's 'De officio hominis et civis'

Andrew Tooke's 1691 English translation of Samuel Pufendorf's De officio hominis et civis, published as The Whole Duty of Man According to the Law of Nature, brought Pufendorf's manual fo statist natural law into English politics at a moment of temporary equilibrium in the unfinished contest between Crown and Parliament for the rights and powers of sovereignty. Drawing on the authors' re-edition of The Whole Duty of Man, this article describes and analyses a telling instance of how--by translation--the core political terms and concepts of the German natural jurist's 'absolutist' formulary were reshaped for reception in the different political culture of late seventeenth-century England.

Effect of honey types and concentration on starch gelatinization

The complex and variable composition of honey, depending on source, season and processing, means different honey samples could cause variation in the characteristics of the finished product. The objective of this study was to determine how the minor components present in honey affect starch gelatinization. A Rapid Visco Analyser was used to measure changes in viscosity when unmodified maize starch was gelatinized in a honey or model sugar solution. When honey was compared to equivalent blends of sugars, there was an increase in starch viscosity with increasing levels of addition. However, at the same level, honey gave a lower viscosity than the blends of sugars. Honeys from different sources (differing in pH and amylase activity) show a varied effect on starch gelatinization, with starch viscosity increasing with addition level for six of the honeys, but decreasing with increasing addition level for two honey samples. Varying the pH also produced variation in starch gelatinization patterns between honey types. Between pH 3.0 and 4.0, starch viscosity was similar for all four honey types studied, while above this pH there were differences between all honey types. As expected, starch viscosity decreased as the solution pH neared the optimum for honey amylase activity (pH 5.3-5.6), though it did not increase as the pH moved away from the honey amylase activity optimum. Differences between honey samples, and between honey and a model sugar mixture, in their effect on starch gelatinization was attributed to honey amylase activity and the composition and concentration of minor organic compounds present. Crown Copyright (C) 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology

The higher-level phylogeny of Archosauria (Tetrapoda: Diapsida)

Crown group Archosauria, which includes birds, dinosaurs, crocodylomorphs, and several extinct Mesozoic groups, is a primary division of the vertebrate tree of life. However, the higher-level phylogenetic relationships within Archosauria are poorly resolved and controversial, despite years of study. The phylogeny of crocodile-line archosaurs (Crurotarsi) is particularly contentious, and has been plagued by problematic taxon and character sampling. Recent discoveries and renewed focus on archosaur anatomy enable the compilation of a new dataset, which assimilates and standardizes character data pertinent to higher-level archosaur phylogeny, and is scored across the largest group of taxa yet analysed. This dataset includes 47 new characters (25% of total) and eight taxa that have yet to be included in an analysis, and total taxonomic sampling is more than twice that of any previous study. This analysis produces a well-resolved phylogeny, which recovers mostly traditional relationships within Avemetatarsalia, places Phytosauria as a basal crurotarsan clade, finds a close relationship between Aetosauria and Crocodylomorpha, and recovers a monophyletic Rauisuchia comprised of two major subclades. Support values are low, suggesting rampant homoplasy and missing data within Archosauria, but the phylogeny is highly congruent with stratigraphy. Comparison with alternative analyses identifies numerous scoring differences, but indicates that character sampling is the main source of incongruence. The phylogeny implies major missing lineages in the Early Triassic and may support a Carnian-Norian extinction event.