Platelet-derived exosomes induce endothelial cell apoptosis through peroxynitrite generation: experimental evidence for a novel mechanism of septic vascular dysfunction

Abstract Introduction Several studies link hematological dysfunction to severity of sepsis. Previously we showed that platelet-derived microparticles from septic patients induce vascular cell apoptosis through the NADPH oxidase-dependent release of superoxide. We sought to further characterize the microparticle-dependent vascular injury pathway. Methods During septic shock there is increased generation of thrombin, TNF-α and nitric oxide (NO). Human platelets were exposed for 1 hour to the NO donor diethylamine-NONOate (0.5 μM), lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 100 ng/ml), TNF-α (40 ng/ml), or thrombin (5 IU/ml). Microparticles were recovered through filtration and ultracentrifugation and analyzed by electron microscopy, flow cytometry or Western blotting for protein identification. Redox activity was characterized by lucigenin (5 μM) or coelenterazine (5 μM) luminescence and by 4,5-diaminofluorescein (10 mM) and 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein (10 mM) fluorescence. Endothelial cell apoptosis was detected by phosphatidylserine exposure and by measurement of caspase-3 activity with an enzyme-linked immunoassay. Results Size, morphology, high exposure of the tetraspanins CD9, CD63, and CD81, together with low phosphatidylserine, showed that platelets exposed to NONOate and LPS, but not to TNF-α or thrombin, generate microparticles similar to those recovered from septic patients, and characterize them as exosomes. Luminescence and fluorescence studies, and the use of specific inhibitors, revealed concomitant superoxide and NO generation. Western blots showed the presence of NO synthase II (but not isoforms I or III) and of the NADPH oxidase subunits p22phox, protein disulfide isomerase and Nox. Endothelial cells exposed to the exosomes underwent apoptosis and caspase-3 activation, which were inhibited by NO synthase inhibitors or by a superoxide dismutase mimetic and totally blocked by urate (1 mM), suggesting a role for the peroxynitrite radical. None of these redox properties and proapoptotic effects was evident in microparticles recovered from platelets exposed to thrombin or TNF-α. Conclusion We showed that, in sepsis, NO and bacterial elements are responsible for type-specific platelet-derived exosome generation. Those exosomes have an active role in vascular signaling as redox-active particles that can induce endothelial cell caspase-3 activation and apoptosis by generating superoxide, NO and peroxynitrite. Thus, exosomes must be considered for further developments in understanding and treating vascular dysfunction in sepsis.

Endo-PDI is required for TNFα-induced angiogenesis

Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) and its homologs are oxidoreductases facilitating protein folding in the ER. Endo-PDI (also termed ERp46) is highly expressed in endothelial cells. It belongs to the PDI family but its physiological function is largely unknown. We studied the role of Endo-PDI in endothelial angiogenic responses. Stimulation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (with TNFα (10ng/ml) increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation. This effect was largely attenuated by Endo-PDI siRNA, whereas JNK and p38 MAP kinase phosphorylation was Endo-PDI independent. Similarly, TNFα-stimulated NF-κB signaling determined by IκBα degradation as well as TNFα-induced ICAM expression was unaffected by Endo-PDI siRNA. The action of Endo-PDI was not mediated by extracellular thiol exchange or cell surface PDI as demonstrated by nonpermeative inhibitors and PDI-neutralizing antibody. Moreover, exogenously added PDI failed to restore ERK1/2 activation after Endo-PDI knockdown. This suggests that Endo-PDI acts intracellularly potentially by maintaining the Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK pathway. Indeed, knockdown of Endo-PDI attenuated Ras activation measured by G-LISA and Raf phosphorylation. ERK activation influences gene expression by the transcriptional factor AP-1, which controls MMP-9 and cathepsin B, two proteases required for angiogenesis. TNFα-stimulated MMP-9 and cathepsin B induction was reduced by silencing of Endo-PDI. Accordingly, inhibition of cathepsin B or Endo-PDI siRNA blocked the TNFα-stimulated angiogenic response in the spheroid outgrowth assays. Moreover ex vivo tube formation and in vivo Matrigel angiogenesis in response to TNFα were attenuated by Endo-PDI siRNA. In conclusion, our study establishes Endo-PDI as a novel, important mediator of AP-1-driven gene expression and endothelial angiogenic function

Each one teaches one: characterizing active forms of proteins by single molecule force spectroscopy

This Ph.D. candidate thesis collects the research work I conducted under the supervision of Prof.Bruno Samor´ı in 2005,2006 and 2007. Some parts of this work included in the Part III have been begun by myself during my undergraduate thesis in the same laboratory and then completed during the initial part of my Ph.D. thesis: the whole results have been included for the sake of understanding and completeness. During my graduate studies I worked on two very different protein systems. The theorical trait d’union between these studies, at the biological level, is the acknowledgement that protein biophysical and structural studies must, in many cases, take into account the dynamical states of protein conformational equilibria and of local physico-chemical conditions where the system studied actually performs its function. This is introducted in the introductory part in Chapter 2. Two different examples of this are presented: the structural significance deriving from the action of mechanical forces in vivo (Chapter 3) and the complexity of conformational equilibria in intrinsically unstructured proteins and amyloid formation (Chapter 4). My experimental work investigated both these examples by using in both cases the single molecule force spectroscopy technique (described in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6). The work conducted on angiostatin focused on the characterization of the relationships between the mechanochemical properties and the mechanism of action of the angiostatin protein, and most importantly their intertwining with the further layer of complexity due to disulfide redox equilibria (Part III). These studies were accompanied concurrently by the elaboration of a theorical model for a novel signalling pathway that may be relevant in the extracellular space, detailed in Chapter 7.2. The work conducted on -synuclein (Part IV) instead brought a whole new twist to the single molecule force spectroscopy methodology, applying it as a structural technique to elucidate the conformational equilibria present in intrinsically unstructured proteins. These equilibria are of utmost interest from a biophysical point of view, but most importantly because of their direct relationship with amyloid aggregation and, consequently, the aetiology of relevant pathologies like Parkinson’s disease. The work characterized, for the first time, conformational equilibria in an intrinsically unstructured protein at the single molecule level and, again for the first time, identified a monomeric folded conformation that is correlated with conditions leading to -synuclein and, ultimately, Parkinson’s disease. Also, during the research work, I found myself in the need of a generalpurpose data analysis application for single molecule force spectroscopy data analysis that could solve some common logistic and data analysis problems that are common in this technique. I developed an application that addresses some of these problems, herein presented (Part V), and that aims to be publicly released soon.

Machine learning methods for prediction of disulphide bonding states of cysteine residues in proteins

The goal of this thesis work is to develop a computational method based on machine learning techniques for predicting disulfide-bonding states of cysteine residues in proteins, which is a sub-problem of a bigger and yet unsolved problem of protein structure prediction. Improvement in the prediction of disulfide bonding states of cysteine residues will help in putting a constraint in the three dimensional (3D) space of the respective protein structure, and thus will eventually help in the prediction of 3D structure of proteins. Results of this work will have direct implications in site-directed mutational studies of proteins, proteins engineering and the problem of protein folding. We have used a combination of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Hidden Markov Model (HMM), the so-called Hidden Neural Network (HNN) as a machine learning technique to develop our prediction method. By using different global and local features of proteins (specifically profiles, parity of cysteine residues, average cysteine conservation, correlated mutation, sub-cellular localization, and signal peptide) as inputs and considering Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes separately we have reached to a remarkable accuracy of 94% on cysteine basis for both Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic datasets, and an accuracy of 90% and 93% on protein basis for Eukaryotic dataset and Prokaryotic dataset respectively. These accuracies are best so far ever reached by any existing prediction methods, and thus our prediction method has outperformed all the previously developed approaches and therefore is more reliable. Most interesting part of this thesis work is the differences in the prediction performances of Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes at the basic level of input coding when ‘profile’ information was given as input to our prediction method. And one of the reasons for this we discover is the difference in the amino acid composition of the local environment of bonded and free cysteine residues in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes. Eukaryotic bonded cysteine examples have a ‘symmetric-cysteine-rich’ environment, where as Prokaryotic bonded examples lack it.

Synthese und Untersuchung von neuen Alpha,Omega-funktionalisierten Lipopolymeren zum Aufbau von polymerunterstützten Lipiddoppelschichten

Ziel dieser Arbeit war es hydrophile Lipopolymere darzustellen, mit denen es möglich sein sollte polymerunterstützte Lipiddoppelschichten auf festen Substratoberflächen zu fixieren. Die Polymere sollten einen Oberflächenanker, eine lipophile Gruppe und ein hydrophiles Polymerrückgrat enthalten. Hierzu wurden Alpha,Omega-funktionalisierte Polymere ausgehend von lipophilen Initiatoren dargestellt. Ausgehend von hydrophoben 2-Brompropionsäureamiden konnte eine kontrollierte radikalische Polymerisation (ATRP) von verschiedenen Acrylamiden durchgeführt werden. So wurden verschiedene Copolymere aus Acrylamid, N-Isopropylacrylamid und N-(3-Dimethylaminopropyl)-acrylamid synthetisiert. Der Einbau des Oberflächenankers als Funktionalität erfolgte indirekt durch Polymerisation eines N-Acryloxysuccinimid Endblocks, welcher in einer anschließenden polymeranalogen Reaktion mit Cysteaminmethyldisulfid umgesetzt wurde.In Ladungsuntersuchungen (PCD) konnte das pH-abhängige Verhalten der Polymere untersucht werden. Der Knäuelkollaps (LCST) der Poly-(N-isopropylacrylamide) wurde mittels Turbidimetrie und DSC charakterisiert. Die Adsorption der Polymere auf Goldoberflächen wurde mit Hilfe der Oberflächenplasmonen Spektroskopie (SPS) aus wässriger Lösung nachgewiesen werden. Dabei bildeten sich ultradünne Filme von 15-20 Å Dicke aus. Kontaktwinkelmessungen wiesen diesen adsorbierten Polymerfilmen ein sehr hydrophiles Verhalten nach. In Lösung adsorbierten die Polymere auf Vesikeloberflächen. Auf ultradünnen Polymerfilmen adsorbierten die Vesikel, wobei mit Hilfe der SPS eine Dickenzunahme um etwa 50 Å nachgewiesen werden konnte. Die ultradünnen Filme der Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) wiesen eine temperaturabhängige Attraktivität gegenüber Vesikeln auf. Durch gezielte Polystyrol-Entnetzung konnten strukturierte Träger erhalten werden.

Recombinant expression of molluscan hemocyanin (KLH) substructures in a prokaryotic system: E. coli

The recombinant expression of 19 different substructures of KLH in the prokaryotic sys-tem E. coli has been successfully achieved: each one of the eight single FUs a to h of both isoforms, KLH1 and KLH2, two substructures consisting of two consecutive FUs (KLH1-bc and KLH1-gh) as well as a cDNA encompassing KLH1-abc. All recombinant proteins, fused to an N-terminal 6xHis tag, have successfully been detected by immuno precipitation using monoclonal α-His-antibodies and polyclonal α-KLH1- and α-KLH2-antibodies. One exception remained: SP-KLH2-a, which was not detected by the α-His-antibodies. This allows speculations as to whether the coexpressed signal peptide can lead, at one hand, to the secretion of the recombinant protein, and on the other to the simultaneous cut-off of the leader peptide, which results in the splitting off of even more N-terminal 6xHis tag, leading to failed recognition by the appropriate antibodies. The comparison of native KLH with recombinantly expressed prokaryotic (E. coli) and eukaryotic (Sf9 insect cells) KLH was done using FU-1h. The weak detection by the polyclonal α-KLH1-antibodies of both recombinantly expressed proteins showed that the native protein was the best recognized. For the prokaryotic one, both the denaturation applied for solubilisation of the bacterial inclusion bodies and the inability of bacterial cells to add N-linked glycosylation, are the reason for the poor hybridization. In contrast, KLH1-h expressed in eukaryotic insect cells is likely to be glycosylated. The incubation with the α-KLH1-antibodies resulting in the same weak detection, however, revealed that the linked carbohydrate side chains are not those expected. The establishment of SOE-PCR, together with further improvement, has enabled the generation of a clone encompassing the complete subunit KLH1-abcdefgh. The se-quence analysis compared to the original KLH1 sequence showed, however, that the resulting recombinant protein is defective in two histidines, required for the copper bind-ing sites in FU-1b and FU-1d and in three disulfide bridges (FU-1a, FU-1b and FU 1g). This is due to polymerase-related nucleotide exchanges, resulting in a changed amino acid sequence. Nevertheless, all eight potential N-glycosylation sites are present, leading to the speculation that the recombinant protein can in theory be fully glycosylated, which is the most important aspect for the clinical applicability of recombinant KLH as an im-munotherapeutic agent. The improvement of this method elaborated during the present work indicates bright prospects for the future generation of a correct cDNA sequence encoding for the complete KLH2 subunit.

Eigenschaften von thermoresponsiven Bürstenpolymeren

In dieser Doktorarbeit werden die Eigenschaften von thermoresponsiven Bürstenpolymeren untersucht. Hierbei konnten erstmalig thermische Konformationsübergänge von zylindrischen Bürstenmolekülen auf Oberflächen beobachtet werden. Der Einfluss der Oberfläche auf die Umkehrbarkeit und die Kinetik der Übergänge wurde untersucht. Die dabei erhaltenen Erkenntnisse konnten verwendet werden, um das Verhalten der Polymere auf anderen Oberflächen vorherzusagen. Im zweiten Projekt wurde gezeigt, dass Einzelmolekül-Kraftspektroskopie eine gute Methode für die Untersuchung der mechanischen Eigenschaften von Bürstenpolymeren in guten Lösungsmitteln ist. Mit kleinen Substanzmengen kann die Persistenzlänge der Polymere bestimmt werden. Es ist möglich zu zeigen, dass die Persistenzlänge der Polymerbürsten von ihrer Seitenkettenlänge abhängt. Überraschenderweise funktioniert das Experiment nicht, wenn man die Bürsten aus einem Polymerfilm zieht anstatt ein Einzelmolekülexperiment durchzuführen. In diesem Fall zeigen die Kraft-Abstands-Kurven zu lange Kontur- und Persistenzlängen. Diese Beobachtung ist für lineare Polymere nicht gültig. Im dritten Teil der Doktorarbeit werden Kraft-Abstands-Experimente an einzelnen kollabierten Polymeren untersucht. In schlechten Lösungsmitteln zeigen die Bürsten ein moleküllängenabhängiges Kraft-Plateau, welches theoretisch vorausgesagt wurde und einen Phasenübergang von einem kollabierten zu einem entspannten Zustand der Polymerkette anzeigt. In Fly-Fishing-Experimenten kann man eine Hysterese zwischen den beiden Messkurven beobachten, welche bei mehrfachem Ziehen kleiner wird. Alle Experimente in schlechten Lösungsmitteln wurden mit linearen Polymeren reproduziert, um den Einfluss der Molekülarchitektur von den generellen Eigenschaften von Polymeren in schlechten Lösungsmitteln unterscheiden zu können. Zum Abschluss wird die Abhängigkeit der Polymerentfaltung von der Laderate des Experiments gemessen.

Untersuchungen zur Struktur und Funktion des Vibrio cholerae Cytolysins

Vibrio cholerae Cytolysin (VCC) gehört zur Gruppe der Exotoxine und bildet auf Membranen heptamere transmembrane Poren. VCC wird als protoxin mit einem Molekulargewicht von 79 kDa sezerniert und benötigt die proteolytische Spaltung der N-terminalen Pro-Region um Poren in der Membran zu bilden. Diese Spaltung erfolgt sowohl in Lösung, als auch nach der Bindung an Membranen, aber nur aktiviertes VCC oligomererisiert in eine lytische Pore. Die Kristallstruktur von VCC zeigt, dass das Monomer vier verschiedenen strukturellen Domänen enthält; die cytolytische Domäne, mit der Pre-Stem-Sequenz, der Pro-Region und den beiden C-terminalen Domänen β-Trefoil und β-Prism. Die porenbildende β-Barrel wird aus je einer Pre-Stem Domäne jedes der einzelnen sieben Untereinheiten gebildet. Da sich die porenbildende Region im Monomer zwischen den Domänen β-Prism und β-Trefoil befindet, sind konformationelle Änderungen des Toxins notwendig, um die Insertion dieser Region in die Membran zu ermöglichen. In dieser Arbeit wurde unter anderem der Mechanismus der Porenbildung durch die Konstruktion von Disulfid-Derivaten untersucht. Die Bildung von Disulfidbrücken wurde verwendet, um die porenbildende Region entweder mit der β-Trefoil oder β-Prism Domäne zu verknüpfen. Unter nicht-reduzierenden Bedingungen bindet das Toxin an Membranen und oligomerisiert zu SDS-labilen Oligomeren. Nach der Reduktion der künstlichen Disulfidbrücke erlangen die gebildeten Oligomere SDS-Stabilität und permeabilisieren die Membran. Durch die Zugabe steigender Konzentrationen des VCC-Derivats zu aktivem Toxin, wird die SDS-Stabilität der gebildeten Oligomere stark reduziert. Die Insertion des aktiven Toxins in die Membran wird allerdings nicht verhindert und daher Poren mit reduziertem funktionellen Durchmesser gebildet. Diese Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass die Bildung einer Prä-Pore vor der Insertion des Toxins in die Membran erfolgt und zeigt zum ersten Mal ein solches Zwischenstadium für ein β-porenbildendes Toxin, das von Gram-negativen Organismen produziert wird. Diese Ergebnisse deuten auf einen archetypischen Mechanismus der Porenbildung hin. Zusätzlich wurde die Funktion der beiden C-terminalen Domänen untersucht, und daher verschiedene Deletions- und Substitutionsmutanten konstruiert. Die β-Trefoil Domäne ist nicht essentiell für die Bindung des Toxins an Membranen, ist aber für die korrekte Faltung des Toxins notwendig. Die C-terminale β-Prism Domäne vermittelt die Bindung des Toxins an Membranen über Zuckerrezeptoren.

Struktur und Funktion des Lipoproteins von Nereis virens (Annelida)

Ein discoidales Lipoprotein aus dem Polychaeten Nereis virens (Annelida) wurde eingehend charakterisiert. Im Vordergrund standen dabei die transportierten Lipide, sowie die Ultrastruktur des Partikels. Das Nereis-Lipoprotein besitzt eine für Invertebraten atypische Lipidzusammensetzung: Außer den Phospholipiden gibt es keine klar dominierende Lipidklasse. Die Charakterisierung der Apolipoproteine zeigt Gemeinsamkeiten mit den Apolipophorinen der Insekten: Wie diese besitzt das Nereis-Lipoprotein zwei Apolipoproteine, die in einer 1:1-Stöchiometrie angeordnet sind. Das größere Protein (ApoNvLp I) ist dabei stärker zum wässrigen Medium exponiert ist als das kleinere (ApoNvLp II). Beide Proteinuntereinheiten sind N-glycosyliert. ApoNvLp II ist zusätzlich noch O-glycosyliert. Bei den Sekundärstrukturen dominieren β-Strukturen (35%) gegenüber α-Helices (14%); 28% waren ungeordnete Strukturen. Die Masse wurde mit verschiedenen Methoden bestimmt: sie liegt zwischen ~800 kDa (Gelfiltration) und ~860 kDa (Analytische Ultrazentrifugation). Der Sedimentationskoeffizient beträgt 9,7 S. Der zelluläre Lipoproteinrezeptor wurde aus einer großen Anzahl von Zellen und Geweben isoliert. Die biochemische Charakterisierung des Rezeptormoleküls zeigte es als ein monomeres, integrales, N- und O-glycosyliertes Membranprotein mit einer Masse von ~114 kDa. Die Bindungscharakteristika (Abhängigkeit von Ca2+, Disulfidbrücken) weisen es als Mitglied der LDLR-Superfamilie aus. In vitro-Inkubationsversuche mit fluoreszenzmarkierten Lipoproteinen zeigten die Aufnahme sowohl in Oocyten als auch in freie Coelomzellen (Elaeocyten) sowie in Spermatogonien- und Tetradenstadien. Auffällig war, dass die Lipide zusammen mit den Apolipoproteinen in die Dottergranula der Eizellen eingelagert wurden und nicht direkt in die Lipidtropfen. Auch bei den Elaeocyten wurden die Lipide nicht direkt in den Lipidtropfen eingelagert. Intakte Lipoproteine konnten per Dichtegradienten-Ultrazentrifugation nur aus Spermatogonien isoliert werden. Die isolierten Lipoproteine hatten die gleiche ‚Morphologie’ wie die aus der Coelomflüssigkeit isolierten, zeigten jedoch sehr viele Peptidfragmente im SDS-Gel, was auf eine beginnende Degradation hinweist. Es wird ein Modell für den Lipidtransport in Nereis virens vorgeschlagen, bei dem den Elaeocyten eine entscheidende Rolle im Lipidstoffwechsel zufällt.

Solid-state NMR investigation of phosphonic acid based proton conducting materials

In this work, new promising proton conducting fuel cell membrane materials were characterized in terms of their structure and dynamic properties using solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. Structurally different, phosphonic acid (PA) containing materials were systematically evaluated for possible high-temperature operation (e.g. at T>100°C). Notably, 1H, 2H and 31P magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR provided insight into local connectivities and dynamics of the hydrogen bonded network, while packing arrangements were identified by means of heteronuclear dipolar recoupling techniques.rnThe first part of this work introduced rather crystalline, low molecular weight ionomers for proton conducting membranes, where six different geometries such as line, triangle, screw, tetrahedron, square and hexagon, were investigated. The hexagon was identified as the most promising geometry with high-temperature bulk proton conductivities in the range of 10-3 Scm-1 at a relative humidity of 50%. However, 2H NMR and TGA-MS data suggest that the bulk proton transport is mainly due to the presence of crystal water. Single crystal X-ray data revealed that in the tetrahedron phosphonic acids form tetrameric clusters isolating the mobile protons while the phosphonic acids in the hexagon form zigzag-type pathways through the sample.rnThe second part of this work demonstrates how acid-base pairing and the choice of appropriate spacers may influence proton conduction. Different ratios of statistical copolymers of poly (vinylphosphonic acid) and poly (4-vinylpyridine) were measured to derive information about the local structure and chemical changes. Though anhydrous proton conductivities of all statistical copolymers are rather poor, the conductivity increases to 10-2 S cm-1 when exposing the sample to relative humidity of 80%. In contrast to PVPA, anhydride formation of phosphonic acids in the copolymer is not reversible even when exposing the sample to a relative humidity of 100%.rnIn addition, the influence of both spacers and degree of backbone crystallinity on bulk proton conductivity was investigated. Unlike in systems such as poly benzimidazole (PBI), spacers were inserted between the protogenic groups along the backbone. It was found that dilution of the protogenic groups decreases the conductivity, but compared to PVPA, similar apparent activation energies for local motions were obtained from both variable temperature 1H NMR and impedance spectroscopy data. These observations suggest the formation of phosphonic acid clusters with high degrees of local proton motion, where only a fraction of motions contribute to the observable bulk proton conductivity. Additionally, it was shown that gradual changes of the spacer length lead to different morphologies.rnIn summary, applying advanced solid-state NMR and X-ray analysis, structural and dynamic phenomena in proton conducting materials were identified on a molecular level. The results were discussed with respect to different proton conduction mechanisms and may contribute to a more rational design or improvement of proton conducting membranes.rn

Alpha, Omega end group functionalization of RAFT polymers based on pentafluorophenyl esters and methane thiosulfonates

While polymers with different functional groups along the backbone have intensively been investigated, there is still a challenge in orthogonal functionalization of the end groups. Such well-defined systems are interesting for the preparation of multiblock (co) polymers or polymer networks, for bio-conjugation or as model systems for examining the end group separation of isolated polymer chains. rnHere, Reversible Addition Fragmentation Chain Transfer (RAFT) polymerization was employed as method to investigate improved techniques for an a, w end group functionalization. RAFT produces polymers terminated in an R group and a dithioester-Z group, where R and Z stem from a suitable chain transfer agent (CTA). rnFor alpha end group functionalization, a CTA with an activated pentafluorophenyl (PFP) ester R group was designed and used for the polymerization of various methacrylate monomers, N-isopropylacrylamide and styrene yielding polymers with a PFP ester as a end group. This allowed the introduction of inert propyl amides, of light responsive diazo compounds, of the dyes NBD, Texas Red, or Oregon Green, of the hormone thyroxin and allowed the formation of multiblocks or peptide conjugates. rnFor w end group functionalization, problems of other techniques were overcome through an aminolysis of the dithioester in the presence of a functional methane thiosulfonate (MTS), yielding functional disulfides. These disulfides were stable under ambient conditions and could be cleaved on demand. Using MTS chemistry, terminal methyl disulfides (enabling self-assembly on planar gold surfaces and ligand substitution on gold and semiconductor nanoparticles), butynyl disulfide end groups (allowing the “clicking” of the polymers onto azide functionalized surfaces and the selective removal through reduction), the bio-target biotin, and the fluorescent dye Texas Red were introduced into polymers. rnThe alpha PFP amidation could be performed under mild conditions, without substantial loss of DTE. This way, a step-wise synthesis produced polymers with two functional end groups in very high yields. rnAs examples, polymers with an anchor group for both gold nanoparticles (AuNP) and CdSe / ZnS semi-conductor nanoparticles (QD) and with a fluorescent dye end group were synthesized. They allowed a NP decoration and enabled an energy transfer from QD to dye or from dye to AuNP. Water-soluble polymers were prepared with two different bio-target end groups, each capable of selectively recognizing and binding a certain protein. The immobilization of protein-polymer-protein layers on planar gold surfaces was monitored by surface plasmon resonance.Introducing two different fluorescent dye end groups enabled an energy transfer between the end groups of isolated polymer chains and created the possibility to monitor the behavior of single polymer chains during a chain collapse. rnThe versatility of the synthetic technique is very promising for applications beyond this work.

Cellular localization and mechanism of amyloid precursor protein (APP) homodimer formation in an oxidizing environment

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein, which resembles a cell surface receptor, comprising a large ectodomain, a single spanning transmembrane part and a short C-terminal, cytoplasmic domain. It belongs to a conserved gene family, with over 17 members, including also the two mammalian APP homologues proteins APLP1 and APLP2 („amyloid precursor like proteins“). APP is encoded by 19 exons, of which exons 7, 8, and 15 can be alternatively spliced to produce three major protein isoforms APP770, APP751 and APP695, reflecting the number of amino acids. The neuronal APP695 is the only isoform that lacks a Kunitz Protease Inhibitor (KPI) domain in its extracellular portion whereas the two larger, peripheral APP isoforms, contain the 57-amino-acid KPI insert. rnRecently, research effort has suggested that APP metabolism and function is thought to be influenced by homodimerization and that the oligomerization state of APP could also play a role in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), by regulating its processing and amyloid beta production. Several independent studies have shown that APP can form homodimers within the cell, driven by motifs present in the extracellular domain, as well as in the juxtamembrane (JM) and transmembrane (TM) regions of the molecule, whereby the exact molecular mechanism and the origin of dimer formation remains elusive. Therefore, we focused in our study on the actual subcellular origin of APP homodimerization within the cell, an underlying mechanism, and a possible impact on dimerization properties of its homologue APLP1. Furthermore, we analyzed homodimerization of various APP isoforms, in particular APP695, APP751 and APP770, which differ in the presence of a Kunitz-type protease inhibitor domain (KPI) in the extracellular region. In order to assess the cellular origin of dimerization under different cellular conditions, we established a mammalian cell culture model-system in CHO-K1 (chinese hamster ovary) cells, stably overexpressing human APP, harboring dilysine based organelle sorting motifs at the very C-terminus [KKAA-Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER); KKFF-Golgi]. In this study we show that APP exists as disulfide-bound, SDS-stable dimers, when it was retained in the ER, unlike when it progressed further to the cis-Golgi, due to the KKFF ER exit determinant. These stable APP complexes were isolated from cells, and analyzed by SDS–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under non-reducing conditions, whereas strong denaturing and reducing conditions completely converted those dimers to monomers. Our findings suggested that APP homodimer formation starts early in the secretory pathway and that the unique oxidizing environment of the ER likely promotes intermolecular disulfide bond formation between APP molecules. We particularly visualized APP dimerization employing a variety of biochemical experiments and investigated the origin of its generation by using a Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) approach with split GFP-APP chimeras. Moreover, using N-terminal deletion constructs, we demonstrate that intermolecular disulfide linkage between cysteine residues, exclusively located in the extracellular E1 domain, represents another mechanism of how an APP sub-fraction can dimerize within the cell. Additionally, mutational studies revealed that cysteines at positions 98 and 105, embedded in the conserved loop region within the E1 domain, are critical for interchain disulfide bond formation. Using a pharmacological treatment approach, we show that once generated in the oxidative environment of the ER, APP dimers remain stably associated during transport, reaching the plasma membrane. In addition, we demonstrate that APP isoforms, encompassing the KPI domain, exhibit a strongly reduced ability to form cis-directed dimers in the ER, whereas trans-directed cell aggregation of Drosophila Schneider (S2)-cells was isoform independent, mediating cell-cell contacts. Thus, suggesting that steric properties of KPI-APP might be the cause for weaker cis-interaction in the ER, compared to APP695. Finally, we provide evidence that APP/APLP1 heterointeractions are likewise initiated in the ER, suggesting a similar mechanism for heterodimerization. Therefore, dynamic alterations of APP between monomeric, homodimeric, and possibly heterodimeric status could at least partially explain some of the variety in the physiological functions of APP.rn

Ortsgerichtete Modifikationen von Somatostatin-14 zur Darstellung von maßgeschneiderten Biohybridkonjugaten

Die hochspezifische Funktionalisierung von Proteinen und Peptiden kann durch milde reduktive Spaltung der lösungsmittelzugänglichen Disulfidbrücken und anschließende Rückverbrückung durch den Einbau sogenannter Linkermoleküle über einen konsekutiven Eliminierungs-Additionsprozess verwirklicht werden. Die Erweiterung des Linkerportfolios stellte in erster Instanz die Entwicklung von verschieden funktionalisierten Systemen dar, welche als hochflexible Kernbausteine für den Aufbau komplexer Architekturen dienten. Das Verständnis für die Reaktivität und Reversibilität der Thioladdition an die Mono-und Bissulfone in Abhängigkeit des Substituenten in p-Position konnte durch Variation von Parametern wie Lösungsmittel oder pH-Wert für intelligentes Produktdesign genutzt werden. Heterokonjugate zweier Biomoleküle mit ungepaartem Cystein wurden durch die Kombination von Maleinimid- und Bissulfonchemie innerhalb eines Linkermoleküls realisiert. Polymer-Peptid-Konjugate wurden einerseits über die grafting to Methode durch Modifizierung von Somatostatin mit PEGbissulfonen und anderseits durch grafting from unter Verwendung eines zuvor synthetisierten ATRP-Makroinitiators dargestellt. Multivalente Konjugate konnten durch die Synthese von hochsymmetrischen Tetra- sowie Hexasulfonen und anschließende Umsetzung mit Somatostatin erhalten werden. Die Polyinterkalatorpolymere, die durch lebende radikalische Polymerisation eines Bissulfidmonomers generiert wurden, wurden mit Glutathion umgesetzt. Durch die Interkalation von p-Ethinyl sowie p-Iodmonosulfon in die Disulfidbrücke von Somatostatin konnte erfolgreich gezeigt werden, dass die Rückverbrückung unter Rezyklisierung gelang. Die biologische Integrität wurde durch die Modifikation nicht beeinträchtigt und die erfolgreiche Aufnahme wurde nur bei den rezeptorpositiven Zellen (CAPAN-2) beobachtet. Das artifizielle Iodderivat im Vergleich zum nativen Somatostatin ein erhöhtes Potential zur Apoptoseinduktion. Die Somatostatinderivate präsentierten sich somit als attraktive potentielle Therapeutika.

In-vitro-Studien zur Generierung bi-spezifischer T-Zellen durch T-Zell-Antigenrezeptor-Gentransfer

In der Dissertation konnte gezeigt werden, dass von einem pp65(495-503)-spezifischen Doppelketten-TZR (2-Plasmide-retrovirales Vektorsystem) ein Potential der Fremdinteraktion mit spezifitätsfremden humanen gp100(280-288)- und AML(14-22)- sowie murinen MDM2(81-88)- und p53(264-272)-Tumorantigen-spezifischen TZRa und -b Ketten besteht. Folglich zeichneten sich essentielle Optimierungsverfahren ab. Für die Generierung von bi-spezifischen T-Zellenrnwurden zwei Strategien etabliert. Das erste Verfahren hatte zur Voraussetzung, dass der Donor und Rezipient einen HCMV-seropositiven Status aufweisen würden. Es ließen sich pp65(495-503)-spezifische T-Zellen aus HCMV-seropositiven Blutproben expandieren, die eine effiziente pp65(495-503)-Spezifität charakterisierte. In der zweiten Strategie wurde die Situation behandelt, dass der Donor HCMV-seronegativ und der Rezipient HCMV-seropositiv wären.rnHierbei wurde das Verfahren der simultanen Kotransfektion mit einem pp65(495-503)- und p53(264-272)-spezifischen TZR etabliert. Bei der Verwendung beider Strategien konnten effizient p53(264-272)-Tumorantigen und pp65(495-503)-bi-spezifische T-Zellen generiert werden.rnHinzukommend konnte der Einfluss einer möglichen Kompetition um CD3 undrnFehlinteraktion mit den endogenen TZRa und -b Ketten dargelegt werden. Des Weiteren erfolgten Interaktionsanalysen mit einem p53(264-272)-Tumorantigen-spezifischen Einzelketten-TZR. Die Analysen erfolgten sowohl unter nicht-kompetitiven Bedingungen in der humanen Jurkat-76 Zelllinie, welche den genomischen Verlust von endogenen TZRa und -b Ketten kennzeichnete, als auch unter kompetitiven Bedingungen in den humanen T-Zellen, die endogene TZRa und -b Ketten besitzen. In dem 2-Plasmide-retroviralen Vektorsystem konnte gezeigt werden, dass unter nicht-kompetitiven Bedingungen der p53(264-272)- Tumorantigen-spezifische Einzelketten-TZR in erhöhtem Maße mit der murinen MDM2(81-88)-sowie homologen p53(264-272)- als auch mit den humanen TZRa Ketten der Spezifitäten AML(14-22), gp100(280-288) und pp65(495-503) (Vb3-Analyse) interagieren konnte. Interessanterweise zeigte sich im 1-Plasmid-retroviralen Vektorsystem ein geringeres Interaktionsverhalten mit murinen und vor allem humanen TZRa Ketten. Das Interaktionspotential schien TZR Subfamilien-abhängig zu sein. Essentiell war es, dass der p53(264-272)-Tumorantigenspezifische Einzelketten-TZR eines 1-Plasmid-retroviralen Vektorsystems, trotz minimaler Beeinflussungen, stets an der Zelloberfläche exprimiert werden konnte und sich kein vollständiger Verlust der p53(264-272)-Spezifität verzeichnen ließ. Aufgrund der Verdrängung der Va-Domäne des p53(264-272)-Tumorantigen-spezifischen Einzelketten-TZR durch eine Volllängen-TZRa-Kette, erfolgte die Optimierung der Va/Vb-Interaktion des Einzelketten-TZR (1-Plasmid-retrovirales Vektorsystem). Es konnte ein neuartiger p53(264-272)-Tumorantigenspezifischer Einzelketten-TZR mit einer zusätzlichen künstlichen Disulfidbrücke zwischen Va(Q51C) und dem C-terminalen Ende des SL7-Linkers (G16C) generiert werden. Dieser Einzelketten-TZR zeigte im Vergleich zum Ausgangskonstrukt eine stärkere Va/Vb-Bindung, ausgelesen an einer effizienten Reduktion der residuellen Kettenfehlinteraktion, sowie eine effiziente TZR-Expression und Funktionalität, als auch eine vergleichbare TZR-MHC:Peptid-Affinität. Zusammenfassend konnten pp65(465-503)- und p53(264-272)-Tumorantigen-bi-spezifische T-Zellen generiert werden, die eine effiziente duale Spezifität aufwiesen. Auch konnte detailliert das Interaktionsverhalten eines p53(264-272)-Tumorantigen-spezifischen Einzelketten-TZR mit spezifitätsfremden TZRa Ketten dargelegt sowie eine Optimierung eines p53(264-272)-Tumorantigen-spezifischen Einzelketten-TZR (1-Plasmid-retrovirales Vektorsystem) erzielt werden.

Diblock copolymer - nanocrystal hybrids for optoelectronic applications

Small, smaller, nano - it is a milestone in the development of new materials and technologies. Nanoscience is now present in our daily lives: in the car industry with self-cleaning surfaces, in medicine with cancer therapies, even our clothes and cosmetics utilize nanoparticles. The number and variety of applications has been growing fast in recent years, and the possibilities seem almost infinite. Nanoparticles made of inorganic materials have found applications in new electronic technologies, and organic nanomaterials have been added to resins to produce very strong but light weight materials.rnThis work deals with the combination of organic and inorganic materials for the fabrication of new, functional hybrid systems. For that purpose, block copolymers were made with a long, solubility-enhancing and semiconducting block, and a short anchor block. They were synthesized by either RAFT polymerization or Siegrist polycondensation. For the second block, an active ester was grafted on and subsequently reacted with the anchor molecules in a polymer analogue reaction. The resulting block copolymers had different properties; poly(para-phenylene vinylene) showed self-assembly in organic solvents, which resulted in gelling of the solution. The fibers from a diluted solution were visible through microscopy. When polymer chains were attached to TiO2 nanorods, the hybrids could be integrated into polymer fibers. A light-induced charge separation was demonstrated through KPFM. The polymer charged positively and the charge could travel along the fibers for several hundred nanometers. Polymers made via RAFT polymerization were based on poly(vinyltriphenylamine). Ruthenium chromophores which carried anchor groups were attached to the second block. These novel block copolymers were then attached to ZnO nanorods. A light-induced charge separation was also demonstrated in this system. The ability to disperse inorganic nanoparticles within the film is another advantage of these block copolymers. This was shown with the example of CdSe tetrapods. Poly(vinyltriphenylamine dimer) with disulfide anchor groups was attached to CdSe tetrapods. These four-armed nanoparticles are supposed to show very high charge transport. A polymer without anchor groups was also mixed with the tetrapods in order to investigate the influence of the anchor groups. It was shown that without them no good films were formed and the tetrapods aggregated heavily in the samples. Additionally, a large difference in the film qualities and the aggregation of the tetrapods was found in the sample of the polymer with anchor groups, dependent on the tetrapod arm length and the polymer loading. These systems are very interesting for hybrid solar cells. This work also illustrates similar systems with quantum dots. The influence of the energy level of the polymer on the hole transport from the polymer to the quantum dots, as well as on the efficiency of QLEDs was studied. For this purpose two different polymers were synthesized with different HOMO levels. It was clearly shown that the polymer with the adjusted lower HOMO level had a better hole injection to the quantum dots, which resulted in more efficient light emitting diodes.rnThese systems all have in common the fact that novel, and specially designed polymers, were attached to inorganic nanocrystals. All of these hybrid materials show fascinating properties, and are helpful in the research of new materials for optoelectronic applications.