Systematic literature review of digital three-dimensional superimposition techniques to create virtual dental patients

PURPOSE Digital developments have led to the opportunity to compose simulated patient models based on three-dimensional (3D) skeletal, facial, and dental imaging. The aim of this systematic review is to provide an update on the current knowledge, to report on the technical progress in the field of 3D virtual patient science, and to identify further research needs to accomplish clinical translation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Searches were performed electronically (MEDLINE and OVID) and manually up to March 2014 for studies of 3D fusion imaging to create a virtual dental patient. Inclusion criteria were limited to human studies reporting on the technical protocol for superimposition of at least two different 3D data sets and medical field of interest. RESULTS Of the 403 titles originally retrieved, 51 abstracts and, subsequently, 21 full texts were selected for review. Of the 21 full texts, 18 studies were included in the systematic review. Most of the investigations were designed as feasibility studies. Three different types of 3D data were identified for simulation: facial skeleton, extraoral soft tissue, and dentition. A total of 112 patients were investigated in the development of 3D virtual models. CONCLUSION Superimposition of data on the facial skeleton, soft tissue, and/or dentition is a feasible technique to create a virtual patient under static conditions. Three-dimensional image fusion is of interest and importance in all fields of dental medicine. Future research should focus on the real-time replication of a human head, including dynamic movements, capturing data in a single step.

Imaging properties of scanning equalization digital radiography: A simulation study

We have developed an empirically based simulation system to create images equivalent in SNR and SPR to those that would be acquired with various possible SEDR configurations. This system uses a collection of spot collimated full-field images (SCFFIs) of an anthropomorphic chest phantom, taken at high exposure levels and rescaled in noise and intensity, then digitally collimated and combined to produce the simulated SEDR images. This system allows for the study of design trade-offs between different equalization feedback schemes and scatter rejection geometries in addition to estimating the clinical benefits of SEDR over traditional imaging techniques. Data from this simulation system has demonstrated that SEDR techniques offer potential significant improvements over currently used digital radiography techniques for chest imaging. ^

Interim analysis of clinical trials: Simulation studies of fractional Brownian motion

Interim clinical trial monitoring procedures were motivated by ethical and economic considerations. Classical Brownian motion (Bm) techniques for statistical monitoring of clinical trials were widely used. Conditional power argument and α-spending function based boundary crossing probabilities are popular statistical hypothesis testing procedures under the assumption of Brownian motion. However, it is not rare that the assumptions of Brownian motion are only partially met for trial data. Therefore, I used a more generalized form of stochastic process, called fractional Brownian motion (fBm), to model the test statistics. Fractional Brownian motion does not hold Markov property and future observations depend not only on the present observations but also on the past ones. In this dissertation, we simulated a wide range of fBm data, e.g., H = 0.5 (that is, classical Bm) vs. 0.5< H <1, with treatment effects vs. without treatment effects. Then the performance of conditional power and boundary-crossing based interim analyses were compared by assuming that the data follow Bm or fBm. Our simulation study suggested that the conditional power or boundaries under fBm assumptions are generally higher than those under Bm assumptions when H > 0.5 and also matches better with the empirical results. ^

Chapter 4 The Challenges in Developing Realistic NEG Simulation Models for East Asia

This chapter attempts to identify some important issues in developing realistic simulation models based on new economic geography, and it suggests a direction for solving the difficulties. Specifically, adopting the IDE Geographical Simulation Model (IDE-GSM) as an example, we discuss some problems in developing a realistic simulation model for East Asia. The first and largest problem in this region is the lack of reliable economic datasets at the sub-national level, and this issue needs to be resolved in the long term. However, to deal with the existing situation in the short term, we utilize some techniques to produce more realistic and reliable simulation models. One key compromise is to use a 'topology' representation of geography, rather than a 'mesh' or 'grid' representation or simple 'straight lines' connecting each city which are used in many other models. In addition to this, a modal choice model that takes into consideration both money and time costs seems to work well.

Application of virtual certification techniques to vehicle design and track maintenance

Virtual certification partially substitutes by computer simulations the experimental techniques required for rail vehicle certification. In this paper, several works were these techniques were used in the vehicle design and track maintenance processes are presented. Dynamic simulation of multibody systems was used to virtually apply the EN14363 standard to certify the dynamic behaviour of vehicles. The works described are: assessment of a freight bogie design adapted to meter-gauge, assessment of a railway track layout for a subway network, freight bogie design with higher speed and axle load, and processing of the data acquired by a track recording vehicle for track maintenance.

Differential algebra techniques for space applications

This project investigates the utility of differential algebra (DA) techniques applied to the problem of orbital dynamics with initial uncertainties in the orbital determination of the involved bodies. The use of DA theory allows the splitting of a common Monte Carlo simulation in two parts: the generation of a Taylor map of the final states with regard to the perturbation in the initial coordinates, and the evaluation of the map for many points. A propagator is implemented exploiting DA techniques, and tested in the field of asteroid impact risk monitoring with the potentially hazardous 2011 AG5 and 2007 VK184 as test cases. Results show that the new method is able to simulate 2.5 million trajectories with a precision good enough for the impact probability to be accurately reproduced, while running much faster than a traditional Monte Carlo approach (in 1 and 2 days, respectively).

Pulsatile flow in coronary bifurcations for different stenting techniques

The objective of this work is to analyze the local hem odynamic changes caused in a coronary bifurcation by three different stenting techniques: simple stenting of the main vessel, simple stenting of the main vessel with kissing balloon in the side branch and culotte. To carry out this study an idealized geometry of a coronary bifurcation is used, and two bifurcation angles, 45º and 90º, are chosen as representative of the wide variety of re al configurations. In order to quantify the influence of the stenting technique on the local blood flow, both numeri- cal simulations and experimental measurements are performed. First, steady simulations are carried out with the commercial code ANSYS-Fluent, and then, experimental measurements with PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) obtained in the laboratory are used to validate the numerical simulation. The steady computational simulations show a good overall agreement with the experimental data. Second, pulsatile flow is considered to take into account the tran- sient effects. The time averaged wall shear stress, scillatory shear index and pressure drop obtained numerically are used to compare the behavior of the stenting techniques.

Dynamic Response Optimization of Vehicles through Efficient Multibody Formulations and Automatic Differentiation Techniques

El diseño y desarrollo de sistemas de suspensión para vehículos se basa cada día más en el diseño por ordenador y en herramientas de análisis por ordenador, las cuales permiten anticipar problemas y resolverlos por adelantado. El comportamiento y las características dinámicas se calculan con precisión, bajo coste, y recursos y tiempos de cálculo reducidos. Sin embargo, existe una componente iterativa en el proceso, que requiere la definición manual de diseños a través de técnicas “prueba y error”. Esta Tesis da un paso hacia el desarrollo de un entorno de simulación eficiente capaz de simular, analizar y evaluar diseños de suspensiones vehiculares, y de mejorarlos hacia la solución optima mediante la modificación de los parámetros de diseño. La modelización mediante sistemas multicuerpo se utiliza aquí para desarrollar un modelo de autocar con 18 grados de libertad, de manera detallada y eficiente. La geometría y demás características de la suspensión se ajustan a las del vehículo real, así como los demás parámetros del modelo. Para simular la dinámica vehicular, se utiliza una formulación multicuerpo moderna y eficiente basada en las ecuaciones de Maggi, a la que se ha incorporado un visor 3D. Así, se consigue simular maniobras vehiculares en tiempos inferiores al tiempo real. Una vez que la dinámica está disponible, los análisis de sensibilidad son cruciales para una optimización robusta y eficiente. Para ello, se presenta una técnica matemática que permite derivar las variables dinámicas dentro de la formulación, de forma algorítmica, general, con la precisión de la maquina, y razonablemente eficiente: la diferenciación automática. Este método propaga las derivadas con respecto a las variables de diseño a través del código informático y con poca intervención del usuario. En contraste con otros enfoques en la bibliografía, generalmente particulares y limitados, se realiza una comparación de librerías, se desarrolla una formulación híbrida directa-automática para el cálculo de sensibilidades, y se presentan varios ejemplos reales. Finalmente, se lleva a cabo la optimización de la respuesta dinámica del vehículo citado. Se analizan cuatro tipos distintos de optimización: identificación de parámetros, optimización de la maniobrabilidad, optimización del confort y optimización multi-objetivo, todos ellos aplicados al diseño del autocar. Además de resultados analíticos y gráficos, se incluyen algunas consideraciones acerca de la eficiencia. En resumen, se mejora el comportamiento dinámico de vehículos por medio de modelos multicuerpo y de técnicas de diferenciación automática y optimización avanzadas, posibilitando un ajuste automático, preciso y eficiente de los parámetros de diseño. ABSTRACT Each day, the design and development of vehicle suspension systems relies more on computer-aided design and computer-aided engineering tools, which allow anticipating the problems and solving them ahead of time. Dynamic behavior and characteristics are thus simulated accurately and inexpensively with moderate computational times and resources. There is, however, an iterative component in the process, which involves the manual definition of designs in a trialand-error manner. This Thesis takes a step towards the development of an efficient simulation framework capable of simulating, analyzing and evaluating vehicle suspension designs, and automatically improving them by varying the design parameters towards the optimal solution. The multibody systems approach is hereby used to model a three-dimensional 18-degrees-of-freedom coach in a comprehensive yet efficient way. The suspension geometry and characteristics resemble the ones from the real vehicle, as do the rest of vehicle parameters. In order to simulate vehicle dynamics, an efficient, state-of-the-art multibody formulation based on Maggi’s equations is employed, and a three-dimensional graphics viewer is developed. As a result, vehicle maneuvers can be simulated faster than real-time. Once the dynamics are ready, a sensitivity analysis is crucial for a robust optimization. To that end, a mathematical technique is introduced, which allows differentiating the dynamic variables within the multibody formulation in a general, algorithmic, accurate to machine precision, and reasonably efficient way: automatic differentiation. This method propagates the derivatives with respect to the design parameters throughout the computer code, with little user interaction. In contrast with other attempts in the literature, mostly not generalpurpose, a benchmarking of libraries is carried out, a hybrid direct-automatic differentiation approach for the computation of sensitivities is developed, and several real-life examples are analyzed. Finally, a design optimization process of the aforementioned vehicle is carried out. Four different types of dynamic response optimization are presented: parameter identification, handling optimization, ride comfort optimization and multi-objective optimization; all of which are applied to the design of the coach example. Together with analytical and visual proof of the results, efficiency considerations are made. In summary, the dynamic behavior of vehicles is improved by using the multibody systems approach, along with advanced differentiation and optimization techniques, enabling an automatic, accurate and efficient tuning of design parameters.

Simulation-based evaluation of susceptibility distortion correction methods in diffusion MRI for connectivity analysis

Connectivity analysis on diffusion MRI data of the whole-brain suffers from distortions caused by the standard echo-planar imaging acquisition strategies. These images show characteristic geometrical deformations and signal destruction that are an important drawback limiting the success of tractography algorithms. Several retrospective correction techniques are readily available. In this work, we use a digital phantom designed for the evaluation of connectivity pipelines. We subject the phantom to a “theoretically correct” and plausible deformation that resembles the artifact under investigation. We correct data back, with three standard methodologies (namely fieldmap-based, reversed encoding-based, and registration- based). Finally, we rank the methods based on their geometrical accuracy, the dropout compensation, and their impact on the resulting connectivity matrices.

Fault management techniques for systems with SRAM-based FPGAs

Las Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) SRAM se construyen sobre una memoria de configuración de tecnología RAM Estática (SRAM). Presentan múltiples características que las hacen muy interesantes para diseñar sistemas empotrados complejos. En primer lugar presentan un coste no-recurrente de ingeniería (NRE) bajo, ya que los elementos lógicos y de enrutado están pre-implementados (el diseño de usuario define su conexionado). También, a diferencia de otras tecnologías de FPGA, pueden ser reconfiguradas (incluso en campo) un número ilimitado de veces. Es más, las FPGAs SRAM de Xilinx soportan Reconfiguración Parcial Dinámica (DPR), la cual permite reconfigurar la FPGA sin interrumpir la aplicación. Finalmente, presentan una alta densidad de lógica, una alta capacidad de procesamiento y un rico juego de macro-bloques. Sin embargo, un inconveniente de esta tecnología es su susceptibilidad a la radiación ionizante, la cual aumenta con el grado de integración (geometrías más pequeñas, menores tensiones y mayores frecuencias). Esta es una precupación de primer nivel para aplicaciones en entornos altamente radiativos y con requisitos de alta confiabilidad. Este fenómeno conlleva una degradación a largo plazo y también puede inducir fallos instantáneos, los cuales pueden ser reversibles o producir daños irreversibles. En las FPGAs SRAM, los fallos inducidos por radiación pueden aparecer en en dos capas de arquitectura diferentes, que están físicamente superpuestas en el dado de silicio. La Capa de Aplicación (o A-Layer) contiene el hardware definido por el usuario, y la Capa de Configuración contiene la memoria de configuración y la circuitería de soporte. Los fallos en cualquiera de estas capas pueden hacer fracasar el sistema, lo cual puede ser ás o menos tolerable dependiendo de los requisitos de confiabilidad del sistema. En el caso general, estos fallos deben gestionados de alguna manera. Esta tesis trata sobre la gestión de fallos en FPGAs SRAM a nivel de sistema, en el contexto de sistemas empotrados autónomos y confiables operando en un entorno radiativo. La tesis se centra principalmente en aplicaciones espaciales, pero los mismos principios pueden aplicarse a aplicaciones terrenas. Las principales diferencias entre ambas son el nivel de radiación y la posibilidad de mantenimiento. Las diferentes técnicas para la gestión de fallos en A-Layer y C-Layer son clasificados, y sus implicaciones en la confiabilidad del sistema son analizados. Se proponen varias arquitecturas tanto para Gestores de Fallos de una capa como de doble-capa. Para estos últimos se propone una arquitectura novedosa, flexible y versátil. Gestiona las dos capas concurrentemente de manera coordinada, y permite equilibrar el nivel de redundancia y la confiabilidad. Con el objeto de validar técnicas de gestión de fallos dinámicas, se desarrollan dos diferentes soluciones. La primera es un entorno de simulación para Gestores de Fallos de C-Layer, basado en SystemC como lenguaje de modelado y como simulador basado en eventos. Este entorno y su metodología asociada permite explorar el espacio de diseño del Gestor de Fallos, desacoplando su diseño del desarrollo de la FPGA objetivo. El entorno incluye modelos tanto para la C-Layer de la FPGA como para el Gestor de Fallos, los cuales pueden interactuar a diferentes niveles de abstracción (a nivel de configuration frames y a nivel físico JTAG o SelectMAP). El entorno es configurable, escalable y versátil, e incluye capacidades de inyección de fallos. Los resultados de simulación para algunos escenarios son presentados y comentados. La segunda es una plataforma de validación para Gestores de Fallos de FPGAs Xilinx Virtex. La plataforma hardware aloja tres Módulos de FPGA Xilinx Virtex-4 FX12 y dos Módulos de Unidad de Microcontrolador (MCUs) de 32-bits de propósito general. Los Módulos MCU permiten prototipar Gestores de Fallos de C-Layer y A-Layer basados en software. Cada Módulo FPGA implementa un enlace de A-Layer Ethernet (a través de un switch Ethernet) con uno de los Módulos MCU, y un enlace de C-Layer JTAG con el otro. Además, ambos Módulos MCU intercambian comandos y datos a través de un enlace interno tipo UART. Al igual que para el entorno de simulación, se incluyen capacidades de inyección de fallos. Los resultados de pruebas para algunos escenarios son también presentados y comentados. En resumen, esta tesis cubre el proceso completo desde la descripción de los fallos FPGAs SRAM inducidos por radiación, pasando por la identificación y clasificación de técnicas de gestión de fallos, y por la propuesta de arquitecturas de Gestores de Fallos, para finalmente validarlas por simulación y pruebas. El trabajo futuro está relacionado sobre todo con la implementación de Gestores de Fallos de Sistema endurecidos para radiación. ABSTRACT SRAM-based Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are built on Static RAM (SRAM) technology configuration memory. They present a number of features that make them very convenient for building complex embedded systems. First of all, they benefit from low Non-Recurrent Engineering (NRE) costs, as the logic and routing elements are pre-implemented (user design defines their connection). Also, as opposed to other FPGA technologies, they can be reconfigured (even in the field) an unlimited number of times. Moreover, Xilinx SRAM-based FPGAs feature Dynamic Partial Reconfiguration (DPR), which allows to partially reconfigure the FPGA without disrupting de application. Finally, they feature a high logic density, high processing capability and a rich set of hard macros. However, one limitation of this technology is its susceptibility to ionizing radiation, which increases with technology scaling (smaller geometries, lower voltages and higher frequencies). This is a first order concern for applications in harsh radiation environments and requiring high dependability. Ionizing radiation leads to long term degradation as well as instantaneous faults, which can in turn be reversible or produce irreversible damage. In SRAM-based FPGAs, radiation-induced faults can appear at two architectural layers, which are physically overlaid on the silicon die. The Application Layer (or A-Layer) contains the user-defined hardware, and the Configuration Layer (or C-Layer) contains the (volatile) configuration memory and its support circuitry. Faults at either layers can imply a system failure, which may be more ore less tolerated depending on the dependability requirements. In the general case, such faults must be managed in some way. This thesis is about managing SRAM-based FPGA faults at system level, in the context of autonomous and dependable embedded systems operating in a radiative environment. The focus is mainly on space applications, but the same principles can be applied to ground applications. The main differences between them are the radiation level and the possibility for maintenance. The different techniques for A-Layer and C-Layer fault management are classified and their implications in system dependability are assessed. Several architectures are proposed, both for single-layer and dual-layer Fault Managers. For the latter, a novel, flexible and versatile architecture is proposed. It manages both layers concurrently in a coordinated way, and allows balancing redundancy level and dependability. For the purpose of validating dynamic fault management techniques, two different solutions are developed. The first one is a simulation framework for C-Layer Fault Managers, based on SystemC as modeling language and event-driven simulator. This framework and its associated methodology allows exploring the Fault Manager design space, decoupling its design from the target FPGA development. The framework includes models for both the FPGA C-Layer and for the Fault Manager, which can interact at different abstraction levels (at configuration frame level and at JTAG or SelectMAP physical level). The framework is configurable, scalable and versatile, and includes fault injection capabilities. Simulation results for some scenarios are presented and discussed. The second one is a validation platform for Xilinx Virtex FPGA Fault Managers. The platform hosts three Xilinx Virtex-4 FX12 FPGA Modules and two general-purpose 32-bit Microcontroller Unit (MCU) Modules. The MCU Modules allow prototyping software-based CLayer and A-Layer Fault Managers. Each FPGA Module implements one A-Layer Ethernet link (through an Ethernet switch) with one of the MCU Modules, and one C-Layer JTAG link with the other. In addition, both MCU Modules exchange commands and data over an internal UART link. Similarly to the simulation framework, fault injection capabilities are implemented. Test results for some scenarios are also presented and discussed. In summary, this thesis covers the whole process from describing the problem of radiationinduced faults in SRAM-based FPGAs, then identifying and classifying fault management techniques, then proposing Fault Manager architectures and finally validating them by simulation and test. The proposed future work is mainly related to the implementation of radiation-hardened System Fault Managers.

Multiphase Design and Control Techniques Applied to a Forward Micro-Inverter

En la última década la potencia instalada de energía solar fotovoltaica ha crecido una media de un 49% anual y se espera que alcance el 16%del consumo energético mundial en el año 2050. La mayor parte de estas instalaciones se corresponden con sistemas conectados a la red eléctrica y un amplio porcentaje de ellas son instalaciones domésticas o en edificios. En el mercado ya existen diferentes arquitecturas para este tipo de instalaciones, entre las que se encuentras los módulos AC. Un módulo AC consiste en un inversor, también conocido como micro-inversor, que se monta en la parte trasera de un panel o módulo fotovoltaico. Esta tecnología ofrece modularidad, redundancia y la extracción de la máxima potencia de cada panel solar de la instalación. Además, la expansión de esta tecnología posibilitará una reducción de costes asociados a las economías de escala y a la posibilidad de que el propio usuario pueda componer su propio sistema. Sin embargo, el micro-inversor debe ser capaz de proporcionar una ganancia de tensión adecuada para conectar el panel solar directamente a la red, mientras mantiene un rendimiento aceptable en un amplio rango de potencias. Asimismo, los estándares de conexión a red deber ser satisfechos y el tamaño y el tiempo de vida del micro-inversor son factores que han de tenerse siempre en cuenta. En esta tesis se propone un micro-inversor derivado de la topología “forward” controlado en el límite entre los modos de conducción continuo y discontinuo (BCM por sus siglas en inglés). El transformador de la topología propuesta mantiene la misma estructura que en el convertidor “forward” clásico y la utilización de interruptores bidireccionales en el secundario permite la conexión directa del inversor a la red. Asimismo el método de control elegido permite obtener factor de potencia cercano a la unidad con una implementación sencilla. En la tesis se presenta el principio de funcionamiento y los principales aspectos del diseño del micro-inversor propuesto. Con la idea de mantener una solución sencilla y de bajo coste, se ha seleccionado un controlador analógico que está originalmente pensado para controlar un corrector del factor de potencia en el mismo modo de conducción que el micro-inversor “forward”. La tesis presenta las principales modificaciones necesarias, con especial atención a la detección del cruce por cero de la corriente (ZCD por sus siglas en inglés) y la compatibilidad del controlador con la inclusión de un algoritmo de búsqueda del punto de máxima potencia (MPPT por sus siglas en inglés). Los resultados experimentales muestran las limitaciones de la implementación elegida e identifican al transformador como el principal contribuyente a las pérdidas del micro-inversor. El principal objetivo de esta tesis es contribuir a la aplicación de técnicas de control y diseño de sistemas multifase en micro-inversores fotovoltaicos. En esta tesis se van a considerar dos configuraciones multifase diferentes aplicadas al micro-inversor “forward” propuesto. La primera consiste en una variación con conexión paralelo-serie que permite la utilización de transformadores con una relación de vueltas baja, y por tanto bien acoplados, para conseguir una ganancia de tensión adecuada con un mejor rendimiento. Esta configuración emplea el mismo control BCM cuando la potencia extraída del panel solar es máxima. Este método de control implica que la frecuencia de conmutación se incrementa considerablemente cuando la potencia decrece, lo que compromete el rendimiento. Por lo tanto y con la intención de mantener unos bueno niveles de rendimiento ponderado, el micro-inversor funciona en modo de conducción discontinuo (DCM, por sus siglas en inglés) cuando la potencia extraía del panel solar es menor que la máxima. La segunda configuración multifase considerada en esta tesis es la aplicación de la técnica de paralelo con entrelazado. Además se han considerado dos técnicas diferentes para decidir el número de fases activas: dependiendo de la potencia continua extraída del panel solar y dependiendo de la potencia instantánea demandada por el micro-inversor. La aplicación de estas técnicas es interesante en los sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados a la red eléctrica por la posibilidad que brindan de obtener un rendimiento prácticamente plano en un amplio rango de potencia. Las configuraciones con entrelazado se controlan en DCM para evitar la necesidad de un control de corriente, lo que es importante cuando el número de fases es alto. Los núcleos adecuados para todas las configuraciones multifase consideradas se seleccionan usando el producto de áreas. Una vez seleccionados los núcleos se ha realizado un diseño detallado de cada uno de los transformadores. Con la información obtenida de los diseños y los resultados de simulación, se puede analizar el impacto que el número de transformadores utilizados tiene en el tamaño y el rendimiento de las distintas configuraciones. Los resultados de este análisis, presentado en esta tesis, se utilizan posteriormente para comparar las distintas configuraciones. Muchas otras topologías se han presentado en la literatura para abordar los diferentes aspectos a considerar en los micro-inversores, que han sido presentados anteriormente. La mayoría de estas topologías utilizan un transformador de alta frecuencia para solventar el salto de tensión y evitar problemas de seguridad y de puesta a tierra. En cualquier caso, es interesante evaluar si topologías sin aislamiento galvánico son aptas para su utilización como micro-inversores. En esta tesis se presenta una revisión de inversores con capacidad de elevar tensión, que se comparan bajo las mismas especificaciones. El objetivo es proporcionar la información necesaria para valorar si estas topologías son aplicables en los módulos AC. Las principales contribuciones de esta tesis son: • La aplicación del control BCM a un convertidor “forward” para obtener un micro-inversor de una etapa sencillo y de bajo coste. • La modificación de dicho micro-inversor con conexión paralelo-series de transformadores que permite reducir la corriente de los semiconductores y una ganancia de tensión adecuada con transformadores altamente acoplados. • La aplicación de técnicas de entrelazado y decisión de apagado de fases en la puesta en paralelo del micro-inversor “forward”. • El análisis y la comparación del efecto en el tamaño y el rendimiento del incremento del número de transformadores en las diferentes configuraciones multifase. • La eliminación de las medidas y los lazos de control de corriente en las topologías multifase con la utilización del modo de conducción discontinuo y un algoritmo MPPT sin necesidad de medida de corriente. • La recopilación y comparación bajo las mismas especificaciones de topologías inversoras con capacidad de elevar tensión, que pueden ser adecuadas para la utilización como micro-inversores. Esta tesis está estructurada en seis capítulos. El capítulo 1 presenta el marco en que se desarrolla la tesis así como el alcance de la misma. En el capítulo 2 se recopilan las topologías existentes de micro-invesores con aislamiento y aquellas sin aislamiento cuya implementación en un módulo AC es factible. Asimismo se presenta la comparación entre estas topologías bajo las mismas especificaciones. El capítulo 3 se centra en el micro-inversor “forward” que se propone originalmente en esta tesis. La aplicación de las técnicas multifase se aborda en los capítulos 4 y 5, en los que se presentan los análisis en función del número de transformadores. El capítulo está orientado a la propuesta paralelo-serie mientras que la configuración con entrelazado se analiza en el capítulo 5. Por último, en el capítulo 6 se presentan las contribuciones de esta tesis y los trabajos futuros. ABSTRACT In the last decade the photovoltaic (PV) installed power increased with an average growth of 49% per year and it is expected to cover the 16% of the global electricity consumption by 2050. Most of the installed PV power corresponds to grid-connected systems, with a significant percentage of residential installations. In these PV systems, the inverter is essential since it is the responsible of transferring into the grid the extracted power from the PV modules. Several architectures have been proposed for grid-connected residential PV systems, including the AC-module technology. An AC-module consists of an inverter, also known as micro-inverter, which is attached to a PV module. The AC-module technology offers modularity, redundancy and individual MPPT of each module. In addition, the expansion of this technology will enable the possibility of economies of scale of mass market and “plug and play” for the user, thus reducing the overall cost of the installation. However, the micro-inverter must be able to provide the required voltage boost to interface a low voltage PV module to the grid while keeping an acceptable efficiency in a wide power range. Furthermore, the quality standards must be satisfied and size and lifetime of the solutions must be always considered. In this thesis a single-stage forward micro-inverter with boundary mode operation is proposed to address the micro-inverter requirements. The transformer in the proposed topology remains as in the classic forward converter and bidirectional switches in the secondary side allows direct connection to the grid. In addition the selected control strategy allows high power factor current with a simple implementation. The operation of the topology is presented and the main design issues are introduced. With the intention to propose a simple and low-cost solution, an analog controller for a PFC operated in boundary mode is utilized. The main necessary modifications are discussed, with the focus on the zero current detection (ZCD) and the compatibility of the controller with a MPPT algorithm. The experimental results show the limitations of the selected analog controller implementation and the transformer is identified as a main losses contributor. The main objective of this thesis is to contribute in the application of control and design multiphase techniques to the PV micro-inverters. Two different multiphase configurations have been applied to the forward micro-inverter proposed in this thesis. The first one consists of a parallel-series connected variation which enables the use of low turns ratio, i.e. well coupled, transformers to achieve a proper voltage boost with an improved performance. This multiphase configuration implements BCM control at maximum load however. With this control method the switching frequency increases significantly for light load operation, thus jeopardizing the efficiency. Therefore, in order to keep acceptable weighted efficiency levels, DCM operation is selected for low power conditions. The second multiphase variation considered in this thesis is the interleaved configuration with two different phase shedding techniques: depending on the DC power extracted from the PV panel, and depending on the demanded instantaneous power. The application of interleaving techniques is interesting in PV grid-connected inverters for the possibility of flat efficiency behavior in a wide power range. The interleaved variations of the proposed forward micro-inverter are operated in DCM to avoid the current loop, which is important when the number of phases is large. The adequate transformer cores for all the multiphase configurations are selected according to the area product parameter and a detailed design of each required transformer is developed. With this information and simulation results, the impact in size and efficiency of the number of transformer used can be assessed. The considered multiphase topologies are compared in this thesis according to the results of the introduced analysis. Several other topological solutions have been proposed to solve the mentioned concerns in AC-module application. The most of these solutions use a high frequency transformer to boost the voltage and avoid grounding and safety issues. However, it is of interest to assess if the non-isolated topologies are suitable for AC-module application. In this thesis a review of transformerless step-up inverters is presented. The compiled topologies are compared using a set benchmark to provide the necessary information to assess whether non-isolated topologies are suitable for AC-module application. The main contributions of this thesis are: • The application of the boundary mode control with constant off-time to a forward converter, to obtain a simple and low-cost single-stage forward micro-inverter. • A modification of the forward micro-inverter with primary-parallel secondary-series connected transformers to reduce the current stress and improve the voltage gain with highly coupled transformers. •The application of the interleaved configuration with different phase shedding strategies to the proposed forward micro-inverter. • An analysis and comparison of the influence in size and efficiency of increasing the number of transformers in the parallel-series and interleaved multiphase configurations. • Elimination of the current loop and current measurements in the multiphase topologies by adopting DCM operation and a current sensorless MPPT. • A compilation and comparison with the same specifications of suitable non-isolated step-up inverters. This thesis is organized in six chapters. In Chapter 1 the background of single-phase PV-connected systems is discussed and the scope of the thesis is defined. Chapter 2 compiles the existing solutions for isolated micro-inverters and transformerless step-up inverters suitable for AC-module application. In addition, the most convenient non-isolated inverters are compared using a defined benchmark. Chapter 3 focuses on the originally proposed single-stage forward micro-inverter. The application of multiphase techniques is addressed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, and the impact in different parameters of increasing the number of phases is analyzed. In Chapter 4 an original primary-parallel secondary-series variation of the forward micro-inverter is presented, while Chapter 5 focuses on the application of the interleaved configuration. Finally, Chapter 6 discusses the contributions of the thesis and the future work.

Intrinsic compressibility and volume compression in solvated proteins by molecular dynamics simulation at high pressure.

Constant pressure and temperature molecular dynamics techniques have been employed to investigate the changes in structure and volumes of two globular proteins, superoxide dismutase and lysozyme, under pressure. Compression (the relative changes in the proteins' volumes), computed with the Voronoi technique, is closely related with the so-called protein intrinsic compressibility, estimated by sound velocity measurements. In particular, compression computed with Voronoi volumes predicts, in agreement with experimental estimates, a negative bound water contribution to the apparent protein compression. While the use of van der Waals and molecular volumes underestimates the intrinsic compressibilities of proteins, Voronoi volumes produce results closer to experimental estimates. Remarkably, for two globular proteins of very different secondary structures, we compute identical (within statistical error) protein intrinsic compressions, as predicted by recent experimental studies. Changes in the protein interatomic distances under compression are also investigated. It is found that, on average, short distances compress less than longer ones. This nonuniform contraction underlines the peculiar nature of the structural changes due to pressure in contrast with temperature effects, which instead produce spatially uniform changes in proteins. The structural effects observed in the simulations at high pressure can explain protein compressibility measurements carried out by fluorimetric and hole burning techniques. Finally, the calculation of the proteins static structure factor shows significant shifts in the peaks at short wavenumber as pressure changes. These effects might provide an alternative way to obtain information concerning compressibilities of selected protein regions.

Quantum simulation of a topological Mott insulator with Rydberg atoms in a Lieb lattice

We propose a realistic scheme to quantum simulate the so-far experimentally unobserved topological Mott insulator phase-an interaction-driven topological insulator-using cold atoms in an optical Lieb lattice. To this end, we study a system of spinless fermions in a Lieb lattice, exhibiting repulsive nearest-and next-to-nearest-neighbor interactions and derive the associated zero-temperature phase diagram within mean-field approximation. In particular, we analyze how the interactions can dynamically generate a charge density wave ordered, a nematic, and a topologically nontrivial quantum anomalous Hall phase. We characterize the topology of the different phases by the Chern number and discuss the possibility of phase coexistence. Based on the identified phases, we propose a realistic implementation of this model using cold Rydberg-dressed atoms in an optical lattice. The scheme, which allows one to access, in particular, the topological Mott insulator phase, robustly and independently of its exact position in parameter space, merely requires global, always-on off-resonant laser coupling to Rydberg states and is feasible with state-of-the-art experimental techniques that have already been demonstrated in the laboratory.

On the development of advanced techniques for mixed-elastohydrodynamic lubrification modelling of journal and sliding bearing systems.

The present thesis is focused on the development of a thorough mathematical modelling and computational solution framework aimed at the numerical simulation of journal and sliding bearing systems operating under a wide range of lubrication regimes (mixed, elastohydrodynamic and full film lubrication regimes) and working conditions (static, quasi-static and transient conditions). The fluid flow effects have been considered in terms of the Isothermal Generalized Equation of the Mechanics of the Viscous Thin Films (Reynolds equation), along with the massconserving p-Ø Elrod-Adams cavitation model that accordingly ensures the so-called JFO complementary boundary conditions for fluid film rupture. The variation of the lubricant rheological properties due to the viscous-pressure (Barus and Roelands equations), viscous-shear-thinning (Eyring and Carreau-Yasuda equations) and density-pressure (Dowson-Higginson equation) relationships have also been taken into account in the overall modelling. Generic models have been derived for the aforementioned bearing components in order to enable their applications in general multibody dynamic systems (MDS), and by including the effects of angular misalignments, superficial geometric defects (form/waviness deviations, EHL deformations, etc.) and axial motion. The bearing exibility (conformal EHL) has been incorporated by means of FEM model reduction (or condensation) techniques. The macroscopic in fluence of the mixedlubrication phenomena have been included into the modelling by the stochastic Patir and Cheng average ow model and the Greenwood-Williamson/Greenwood-Tripp formulations for rough contacts. Furthermore, a deterministic mixed-lubrication model with inter-asperity cavitation has also been proposed for full-scale simulations in the microscopic (roughness) level. According to the extensive mathematical modelling background established, three significant contributions have been accomplished. Firstly, a general numerical solution for the Reynolds lubrication equation with the mass-conserving p - Ø cavitation model has been developed based on the hybridtype Element-Based Finite Volume Method (EbFVM). This new solution scheme allows solving lubrication problems with complex geometries to be discretized by unstructured grids. The numerical method was validated in agreement with several example cases from the literature, and further used in numerical experiments to explore its exibility in coping with irregular meshes for reducing the number of nodes required in the solution of textured sliding bearings. Secondly, novel robust partitioned techniques, namely: Fixed Point Gauss-Seidel Method (PGMF), Point Gauss-Seidel Method with Aitken Acceleration (PGMA) and Interface Quasi-Newton Method with Inverse Jacobian from Least-Squares approximation (IQN-ILS), commonly adopted for solving uid-structure interaction problems have been introduced in the context of tribological simulations, particularly for the coupled calculation of dynamic conformal EHL contacts. The performance of such partitioned methods was evaluated according to simulations of dynamically loaded connecting-rod big-end bearings of both heavy-duty and high-speed engines. Finally, the proposed deterministic mixed-lubrication modelling was applied to investigate the in fluence of the cylinder liner wear after a 100h dynamometer engine test on the hydrodynamic pressure generation and friction of Twin-Land Oil Control Rings.

Background Measurement Techniques and Sensitivity Studies for the SNO+ Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay Search

The control of radioactive backgrounds will be key in the search for neutrinoless double beta decay at the SNO+ experiment. Several aspects of the SNO+ back- grounds have been studied. The SNO+ tellurium purification process may require ultra low background ethanol as a reagent. A low background assay technique for ethanol was developed and used to identify a source of ethanol with measured 238U and 232Th concentrations below 2.8 10^-13 g/g and 10^-14 g/g respectively. It was also determined that at least 99:997% of the ethanol can be removed from the purified tellurium using forced air ow in order to reduce 14C contamination. In addition, a quality-control technique using an oxygen sensor was studied to monitor 222Rn contamination due to air leaking into the SNO+ scintillator during transport. The expected sensitivity of the technique is 0.1mBq/L or better depending on the oxygen sensor used. Finally, the dependence of SNO+ neutrinoless double beta decay sensitivity on internal background levels was studied using Monte Carlo simulation. The half-life limit to neutrinoless double beta decay of 130Te after 3 years of operation was found to be 4.8 1025 years under default conditions.