Are we modular lying cues detectors ? The answer is "yes sometimes"

We quickly form first impressions about newly encountered people guiding our subsequent behaviour (approach, avoidance). Such instant judgments might be innate and automatic, being performed unconsciously and independently to other cognitive processes. Lying detection might be subject to such a modular process. Unfortunately, numerous studies highlighted problems with lying detection paradigms such as high error rates and learning effects. Additionally, humans should be motivated doing both detecting others' lies and dis- guising own lies. Disguising own lies might even be more challenging than detecting other people's lies. Thus, when trying to disguise cheating behaviour, liars might display a mixture of disguising (fake) trust cues and uncontrolled lying cues making the interpretation of the expression difficult (perceivers are guessing). In two consecutive online studies, we tested whether seeing an increasing amount (range 0-4) of lying cues (LC) and non-lying cues (NLC) on a standard face results in enhanced guessing behaviour (studies 1 and 2) and that enhanced guessing is accompanied by slower responding (study 2). Results showed that pronounced guessing and slowest responding occurred for faces with an intermediate number and not with the highest number of LC and NLC. In particular, LC were more impor- tant than NLC to uncertain lying decisions. Thus, only a few LC may interfere with automatic processing of lying detection (irrespective of NLC), probably because too little lying cue information is yet available.

Evaluation of molecular, cellular and behavioral consequences of serotonin 1A receptor deletion

In 1998, three different research groups simultaneously reported increased anxiety-related behavior in tests of conflict in their serotonin 1a (5-HT1a) receptor knockout (KO) line with male mice being more severely affected by 5-HT1a receptor deletion than female KO. Similarly, in the hippocampus, we observed increased dendritic complexity in the stratum radiatum of CA1 pyramidal neurons in male but not in female 5-HT1a receptor KO mice. These observations prompted us to investigate gender- dependent differences of 5-HT1a receptor deletion in hippocampal-related behavioral tasks. Testing our mice in anxiety-related paradigms, we reproduced the original studies showing increased anxiety- related behavior in male 5-HT1a receptor KO mice when compared to male WT mice, but no difference between female 5-HT1a receptor KO and WT mice. Similarly, male 5-HT1a receptor KO mice were impaired in association of aversive stimuli fear conditioning paradigms. We argue that increased dendritic complexity and increased synaptic strength of CA3-CA1 synapses in the stratum radiatum impaired proper signal propagation attributed to overactivation of CA1 pyramidal neurons leading to impaired fear memory of male 5-HT1a receptor KO mice. Similar mechanisms in the ventral hippocampus are likely to have contributed to gender-dependent differences in anxiety-related behavior in our and the original studies from 1998. In this study, we started to shed light on the 5-HT1a receptor downstream signaling pathways involved in dendritogenesis of pyramidal neurons during early postnatal development. We could show that NR2B-containing NMDA receptor during development acts downstream of 5-HT1a receptor and is responsible for increased amount of branching in male 5-HT1a receptor KO mice. Conversely, protein and NR2B mRNA expression was increased in 5-HT1a receptor KO mice at P15. Although the exact signaling cascade of 5-HT1a receptor regulating NR2B-containing NMDA receptor has not been determined, CaMKII is a potential downstream effector to influence transportation and removal of NR2B-containing NMDA receptors to and from the synapse. In contrast, Erk1/2 likely acts downstream of NR2B-containing NMDA receptors and was shown to be sufficient to regulate dendritic branching. Moreover, increased NR2B-containing NMDA receptor mediated cell death via excitotoxicity during development and is likely to be involved in reduced survival of adult born neurons in the hippocampus of 5-HT1a receptor KO male. The convergence of 5-HT1a receptor signaling onto NR2B-containing NMDA receptor signaling enables estrogen to interfere with its downstream pathway via G-protein coupled estrogen receptor 1 activation resulting in normalization of branching and behavior in female 5-HT1a receptor mice. In conclusion, our data strongly suggests a hormone- regulated mechanism that by converging on NR2B-containing NMDA receptor signaling is able to normalize morphology of pyramidal neurons and behavior of female 5-HT1a receptor KO mice. Our findings provide a possible explanation for gender-dependent differences in the occurrence of mental disorders with 5-HT1a receptor abnormalities as a strong predisposing factor. -- En 1998, trois équipes de recherche ont décrit un comportement de type anxieux dans des tests de conflit pour leur souris transgéniques avec une délétion du gène pour le récepteur 5-HT1a de la sérotonine. De plus, les trois groupes rapportent un phénotype plus sévère pour le comportement anxieux chez les souris transgéniques mâles que femelles. Dans l'hippocampe, la région avec la densité de récepteur 5-HT1a la plus élevée dans le télencéphale, nous avons observé dans le stratum radiatum une complexité accrue des arborisations dendritiques des neurones pyramidaux du secteur CA1 chez les souris transgénique mâles mais pas chez les femelles. Cette observation nous a encouragés à initier cette étude sur les différences en fonction du genre utilisant les tests comportementaux en rapport avec les fonctions de l'hippocampe chez les souris déficientes pour le récepteur 5-HT1a.Testant nos souris avec des paradigmes associés à l'anxiété, nous avons reproduit les données originales montrant que les souris transgéniques mâles ont un phénotype plus sévère que les souris mâles sauvages, mais qu'aucune différence n'est observée entre les femelles sauvages et transgéniques. De même, les souris mâles déficientes pour le récepteur 5-HT1a sont handicapées dans les tests de conditionnement au stress avec des stimuli aversifs. Nous faisons l'hypothèse que l'augmentation de la complexité de l'arborisation dendritique et l'augmentation de la force du signal synaptique entres les régions CA3 et CA1 de l'hippocampe dans le stratum radiatum perturbe la propagation du signal nerveux qui conduit à l'hyperactivation des neurones du secteur CA1. Ceci conduit à une mémoire de stress altérée chez les souris mâles déficientes pour le récepteur 5-HT1a. Un mécanisme similaire dans l'hippocampe ventral contribue probablement aux différences en fonction du genre dans les tests pour le comportement de type anxieux qui ont été rapportés dans les études originales de 1998. Les mesures de protéine et de mRNA ont mis en évidence une augmentation de l'expression du récepteur NMDA contenant la sous- unité NR2B dans les souris déficientes pour le récepteur 5-HT1a à P15. Dans les cultures organotypiques d'hippocampe, nous avons commencé à disséquer les messagers secondaires à l'activation du récepteur 5-HT1a qui sont impliqués dans la régulation de la croissance dendritique des neurones pyramidaux pendant la période postnatale précoce. Nous avons démontré que les récepteurs NR2B sont en aval de l'activation du récepteur 5-HT1a et qu'ils sont impliqués dans l'accroissement du nombre de dendrites chez la souris mâle déficiente pour le récepteur 5-HT1a. Bien que la cascade de signalisation du récepteur 5-HT1a pour réguler les récepteurs NMDA contenant le NR2B ne soit pas établie, CaMKII est identifié comme un effecteur potentiel pour altérer le transport du récepteur NMDA à la synapse. D'autre part, Erk1/2 est probablement un messager en aval du NR2B du récepteur NMDA, et a été documenté comme suffisant pour réguler l'arborisation dendritique. L'augmentation de NR2B à la synapse des souris déficientes pour le récepteur 5-HT1a peut conduire à une augmentation de l'excitotoxicité dans les cellules. Nous avons observé une augmentation chez la souris déficiente pour le récepteur 5-HT1a de la mort cellulaire dans des tranches d'hippocampe stimulées, ce qui peut être en relation avec la réduction de la survie des neurones générés dans l'hippocampe de la souris mâle transgénique adulte par rapport à la souris mâle sauvage. De plus, la convergence de la signalisation du récepteur 5-HT1a sur la signalisation de la sous-unité NR2B du récepteur NMDA permet à l'oestrogène d'interférer avec sa voie de signalisation du récepteur de l'oestrogène couplé à une protéine G (GPER-1), ceci permettant à l'oestrogène de réduire la taille de l'arborisation des neurones pyramidaux de CA1 chez la femelle de la souris déficiente pour le récepteur 5-HT1a. En conclusion, nos observations suggèrent fortement qu'un mécanisme hormonal convergeant sur la voie de signalisation de la sous-unité NR2B du récepteur NMDA permet la normalisation de l'exubérance des dendrites des neurones CA1 de l'hippocampe et du comportement des souris femelles déficientes pour le récepteur 5-HT1a. Ceci donne une explication possible pour la différence en fonction du genre dans l'apparition de troubles mentaux avec les variations du récepteur 5-HT1a comme facteur de prédisposition important.

Pattern of injury with a graded excitotoxic insult and ensuing chronic medial septal damage in the rat brain

Brain damage caused by an acute injury depends on the initial severity of the injury and the time elapsed after the injury. To determine whether these two variables activate common mechanisms, we compared the response of the rat medial septum to insult with a graded series of concentrations of a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) with the time-course effects of a low dose of AMPA. For this purpose we conducted a dose-response study at concentrations of AMPA between 0.27 and 10.8 nmol to measure atrophy of the septal area, losses of cholinergic and GABAergic neurons, astroglial and microglial reactions, and calcification. Cholinergic neurons, whose loss paralleled the degree of septal atrophy produced by AMPA, are more sensitive than GABAergic neurons to the injury produced by AMPA. At doses of AMPA above 2.7 nmol, calcification and the degree of microglial reaction increased only in the GABAergic region of the septal area, whereas atrophy and neuronal loss reached a plateau. We chose the 2.7-nmol dose of AMPA to determine how these parameters were modified between 4 days and 6 months after injection. We found that atrophy and neuronal loss increased progressively through the 6-month study period, whereas astrogliosis ceased to be observed after 1 month, and calcium precipitates were never detected. We conclude that septal damage does not increase with the intensity of an excitotoxic insult. Rather, it progresses continuously after the insult. Because these two situations involve different mechanisms, short-term paradigms are inappropriate for interpreting the pathogenic mechanisms responsible for long-term neurodegenerative processes.

A role of Eye Vergence in Covert Attention

Covert spatial attention produces biases in perceptual and neural responses in the absence of overt orienting movements. The neural mechanism that gives rise to these effects is poorly understood. Here we report the relation between fixational eye movements, namely eye vergence, and covert attention. Visual stimuli modulate the angle of eye vergence as a function of their ability to capture attention. This illustrates the relation between eye vergence and bottom-up attention. In visual and auditory cue/no-cue paradigms, the angle of vergence is greater in the cue condition than in the no-cue condition. This shows a top-down attention component. In conclusion, observations reveal a close link between covert attention and modulation in eye vergence during eye fixation. Our study suggests a basis for the use of eye vergence as a tool for measuring attention and may provide new insights into attention and perceptual disorders.

Exploring Brain Inhibition and Facilitation by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Background and Question Paired-pulse TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) paradigms allow explore motor cortex physiology. The Triple Stimulation Technique (TST) improves conventional TMS in quantifying cortico-spinal conduction. The objective of our study was to compare both methods in paired-pulse paradigms of inhibition and of facilitation. Method We investigated paired pulse paradigms of 2 ms (short intra-cortical inhibition) and of 10 ms intervals (intra cortical facilitation) in a randomized order in 22 healthy subjects applying conventional TMS and the TST protocol. Results Paired-pulse paradigms by both TMS and the TST yielded comparable results of short intra- cortical inhibition and intra cortical facilitation. However, the coefficient of variation was significantly smaller for SICI paradigm using TST. Conclusion These results suggest no greater sensitivity of the TST for quantifying inhibition and facilitation. The utility of TST to better quantify the individual amount of inhibition in SICI paradigms and its clinical utility need further studies.

Complex patterns of global spread in invasive insects: eco-evolutionary and management consequences

The advent of simple and affordable tools for molecular identification of novel insect invaders and assessment of population diversity has changed the face of invasion biology in recent years. The widespread application of these tools has brought with it an emerging understanding that patterns in biogeography, introduction history and subsequent movement and spread of many invasive alien insects are far more complex than previously thought. We reviewed the literature and found that for a number of invasive insects, there is strong and growing evidence that multiple introductions, complex global movement, and population admixture in the invaded range are commonplace. Additionally, historical paradigms related to species and strain identities and origins of common invaders are in many cases being challenged. This has major consequences for our understanding of basic biology and ecology of invasive insects and impacts quarantine, management and biocontrol programs. In addition, we found that founder effects rarely limit fitness in invasive insects and may benefit populations (by purging harmful alleles or increasing additive genetic variance). Also, while phenotypic plasticity appears important post-establishment, genetic diversity in invasive insects is often higher than expected and increases over time via multiple introductions. Further, connectivity among disjunct regions of global invasive ranges is generally far higher than expected and is often asymmetric, with some populations contributing disproportionately to global spread. We argue that the role of connectivity in driving the ecology and evolution of introduced species with multiple invasive ranges has been historically underestimated and that such species are often best understood in a global context.

Некоторые наблюдения по поводу построения компьютерного морфологического анализатора марийского языка. [Problems in writing a two-level model of Mari morphology]

The article describes some concrete problems that were encountered when writing a two-level model of Mari morphology. Mari is an agglutinative Finno-Ugric language spoken in Russia by about 600 000 people. The work was begun in the 1980s on the basis of K. Koskenniemi’s Two-Level Morphology (1983), but in the latest stage R. Beesley’s and L. Karttunen’s Finite State Morphology (2003) was used. Many of the problems described in the article concern the inexplicitness of the rules in Mari grammars and the lack of information about the exact distribution of some suffixes, e.g. enclitics. The Mari grammars usually give complete paradigms for a few unproblematic verb stems, whereas the difficult or unclear forms of certain verbs are only superficially discussed. Another example of phenomena that are poorly described in grammars is the way suffixes with an initial sibilant combine to stems ending in a sibilant. The help of informants and searches from electronic corpora were used to overcome such difficulties in the development of the two-level model of Mari. The variation of the order of plural markers, case suffixes and possessive suffixes is a typical feature of Mari. The morphotactic rules constructed for Mari declensional forms tend to be recursive and their productivity must be limited by some technical device, such as filters. In the present model, certain plural markers were treated like nouns. The positional and functional versatility of the possessive suffixes can be regarded as the most challenging phenomenon in attempts to formalize the Mari morphology. Cyrillic orthography, which was used in the model, also caused problems. For instance, a Cyrillic letter may represent a sequence of two sounds, the first being part of the word stem while the other belongs to a suffix. In some cases, letters for voiced consonants are also generalized to represent voiceless consonants. Such orthographical conventions distance a morphological model based on orthography from the actual (morpho)phonological processes in the language.

Pensamiento geográfico versus teoría de la comunicación. Hacia un modelo de análisis comunicativo del paisaje

The study of the communicative implications related to landscapes opens a wide range of possibilities concerning the treatment of the communication and landscape relationship. Issues such as the effects of the landscape on the processes of human communication (intrapersonal and interpersonal communication), the follow-up of the communicative processes by means of which the landscape becomes an object of trade (mass communication), the construction of individual and collective imaginaries arising from the citizenship and landscape exchange and, recently, the construction of territorial identities through the production of a brand image of a city or country (i. e., tourist promotion, city marketing and branding). All of them have important implications in the contemporary societies. For that reason, it appears almost essential to progress towards a communicative landscape model, a target which becomes possible if we interrelate geography and communication studies, two fields apparently unrelated one another concerning their origins and practice, although they are very close if we look at the recent evolution of their paradigms and the approach to certain concepts, such as space and landscape.

The role of executive functions in the control of aggressive behavior

An extensive literature suggests a link between executive functions and aggressive behavior in humans, pointing mostly to an inverse relationship, i.e., increased tendencies toward aggression in individuals scoring low on executive function tests. This literature is limited, though, in terms of the groups studied and the measures of executive functions. In this paper, we present data from two studies addressing these issues. In a first behavioral study, we asked whether high trait aggressiveness is related to reduced executive functions. A sample of over 600 students performed in an extensive behavioral test battery including paradigms addressing executive functions such as the Eriksen Flanker task, Stroop task, n-back task, and Tower of London (TOL). High trait aggressive participants were found to have a significantly reduced latency score in the TOL, indicating more impulsive behavior compared to low trait aggressive participants. No other differences were detected. In an EEG-study, we assessed neural and behavioral correlates of error monitoring and response inhibition in participants who were characterized based on their laboratory-induced aggressive behavior in a competitive reaction time task. Participants who retaliated more in the aggression paradigm and had reduced frontal activity when being provoked did not, however, show any reduction in behavioral or neural correlates of executive control compared to the less aggressive participants. Our results question a strong relationship between aggression and executive functions at least for healthy, high-functioning people.

O Quadrante de Ruetsap e a anti-ciência, tecnologia e inovação

The concept of research and the controversy among classical models for C, T & I, outdated by the development of knowledge and Post-modern society needs were revisited through the (3) Quadrants advanced by Donald Stokes in the mid-nineties. The scientific community to fit into these Quadrants was faced with many difficulties and reacted by issuing pseudo-facts, accepted by under-prepared technocrats as viable justifications for conducting research in face of these new paradigms. In a poor country full of contrast and needs such as Brazil, this attitude satisfies the bureaucracy and academic elite, but frustrates government and society, that do not get, in the expected measure, the benefits of their commitment with the Teaching, Research and Extension Sectors mainly embedded in the Public University system. An extension, in fact a contradictory approach, to Pasteur's Quadrant, is proposed to characterize this situation: The Syndrome of Ruetsap's Quadrant.

Applying collective intelligence to idea evaluation at the front end of innovation

The study focuses on the front end of innovation process. Due to changes in innovation policies and paradigms customers, users and shopfloor employees are becoming increasingly important sources of knowledge. New methods are needed for processing information and ideas coming from multiple sources more effectively. The aim of this study is to develop an idea evaluation tool suitable for the front end of innovation process and capable of utilizing collective intelligence. The study is carried out as a case study research using constructive research approach. The chosen approach suits well for the purposes of the study. The constructive approach focuses on designing new constructs and testing them in real life applications. In this study a tool for evaluating ideas emerging from the course of everyday work is developed and tested in a case organization. Development of the tool is based on current scientific literature on knowledge creation, innovation management and collective intelligence and it is tested in LUT Lahti School of Innovation. Results are encouraging. The idea evaluation tool manages to improve performance at the front end of innovation process and it is accepted in use in the case organization. This study provides insights on what kind of a tool is required for facilitating collective intelligence at the front end of innovation process.

Química Medicinal Moderna: desafios e contribuição brasileira

The main aspects of the modern Medicinal Chemistry, among the classic and industrial paradigms, used in the drug discovery process will be treated. The contribution of the Brazilian science in the knowledge generation in Medicinal Chemistry will be demonstrated, with base in searches accomplished in the portal Web of Science® 7.10 and in the directory of groups of research of CNPq.

Sustentabilidade ambiental: um estudo com pesquisadores químicos no Brasil

A study evaluating Brazilian chemical researchers understanding of the scope of the terms Environmental Sustainability and Sustainable Development, and their assessment of how to deal with environmental fragility and limits, is reported. Results showed a certain degree of acknowledgement of the need for a more sustainable development, but little agreement on the magnitude of the environmental limits. The researchers recognized the limitations of the classical paradigms "of dilution" and "of risk", but showed no agreement on the requirements of the new "ecological paradigm" based on Environmental Sustainability and the 12 principles of Green Chemistry, important to assess the role of Green Chemistry for Sustainability.

Nuorisorikollisuuden esiintyvyys, taustatekijät ja sovittelu

Tausta Vaikka nuorisorikollisuus on kriminologisen tutkimuksen perinteinen kohde, on edelleen tarvetta pitkittäistutkimuksille, joissa on laaja, koko väestöä edustava otos. Kriminaalipolitiikan alalla puolestaan rikosten sovittelu ja muut restoratiivisen oikeuden muodot ovat nousseet Suomessakin haastamaan perinteiset rikoskontrollin paradigmat, rangaistuksen ja hoidon. Tutkimuskysymykset Tutkimuksen pääkysymyksenä oli, mitkä lapsuudessa (8 v.) ja nuoruudessa (18 v.) mitatut psykososiaaliset tekijät ovat yhteydessä nuorisorikollisuuden (16-20 v.) määrään ja lajiin. Lisäksi yhtenä kysymyksenä oli, miten varusmiespalvelun aikaiset psykiatriset diagnoosit liittyvät nuorisorikollisuuteen. Lisäksi tutkimme nuorisorikollisuuden esiintyvyyttä ja palvelujen käyttöä, ja vertailimme eri informanttien (tutkimushenkilöt itse, vanhemmat ja opettajat) vastausten ennusvoimaa lasten tulevan rikollisuuden suhteen. Rikosten sovittelun osalta kysymyksenä oli, miten suomalainen sovittelukäytäntö vastaa restoratiivisen oikeuden teoriaa ja miten sovittelua pitäisi kehittää. Aineisto ja metodit Pitkittäistutkimuksemme aineistona oli valtakunnallisesti edustava satunnaisotos, joka vastasi 10% vuonna 1981 Suomessa syntyneistä suomenkielisistä pojista. Ensimmäinen tiedonkeruu tapahtui 1989, kun pojat olivat 8-vuotiaita. Tietoa kerättiin lomakekyselyin pojilta itseltään sekä heidän vanhemmiltaan ja opettajiltaan. Tietoja saatiin 2946 pojasta. Lasten lomakkeena oli Children’s Depression Inventory, vanhemman lomakkeena Rutter A2 ja opettajan lomakkeena Rutter B2. Toinen tiedonkeruu järjestettiin, kun pojat osallistuivat kutsuntoihin 1999. Tietoja saatiin 2330 pojasta. Lomakkeena oli Young Adult Self-Report . Puolustusvoimien rekisteristä saatiin tiedot poikien kutsunnoissa ja palvelusaikana (vuosina 1999-04) saamista psykiatrisista diagnooseista, jotka luokiteltiin kuuteen luokkaan: antisosiaalinen persoonallisuushäiriö, päihdehäiriöt, psykoottiset häiriöt, ahdistuneisuushäiriöt, masennustilat ja sopeutumishäiriöt. Tieto mahdollisesta diagnoosista saatiin 2712 pojasta. Rikollisuus operationalisoitiin poliisin ns. RIKI-rekisteriin vuosina 1998-2001 rekisteröityjen tekojen avulla, kun pojat olivat pääasiassa 16-20-vuotiaita. Rikosten määrän mukaan pojat jaettiin neljään ryhmään: ei rikoksia, 1-2 rikosta (satunnainen rikollisuus), 3-5 rikosta (uusintarikollisuus) ja yli 5 rikosta (aktiivinen uusintarikollisuus). Rikoslajeista muodostettiin viisi kategoriaa: huume-, väkivalta-, omaisuus-, liikenne- ja rattijuopumusrikollisuus. Analyysivaiheessa rekisteridatasta poistettiin liikennerikkomukset. Kaikkiaan tiedot mahdollisista poliisikontakteista saatiin 2866 pojasta. Sovitteludata koostui 16 sovittelujutun havainnoinnista Turussa vuosina 2001- 2003. Tulokset Kaikkiaan 23% pojista oli rekisteröity rikoksesta (poissulkien liikennerikkomukset) nelivuotisen tutkimusperiodin aikana 16-20-vuotiaana. Satunnaisia rikoksentekijöitä oli 15%, uusijoita 4% ja moninkertaisia uusijoita 4%. Rikokset kasautuivat moninkertaisille uusijoille: tämä 4%:n ryhmä teki 72% kaikista rikoksista . Omaisuus- ja liikennerikollisia oli eniten (kumpiakin 11%), ja huumerikollisia vähiten (4%). Kaikki rikoslajit korreloivat keskenään tilastollisesti merkitsevästi. Nuorisorikollisuuden itsenäisiä ennustekijöitä lapsuudessa olivat rikkinäinen perherakenne, vanhempien alhainen koulutustaso, lapsen käytösongelmat ja hyperaktiivisuus. Kun verrattiin eri informantteja (lapset itse ja heidän vanhempansa ja opettajansa), etenkin opettajien vastaukset ennustivat lasten tulevaa rikollisuutta. Nuoruudessa rikollisuuden itsenäisiä korrelaatteja olivat pienellä paikkakunnalla asuminen, vanhempien ero, seurustelu, itse ilmoitettu antisosiaalisuus ja säännöllinen tupakointi ja humalajuominen. Ennus- ja taustatekijöille oli tyypillistä se, että ne olivat lineaarisessa yhteydessä rikosten määrään (ongelmat ja rikosten määrä lisääntyivät käsi kädessä) ja että ne liittyivät useaan rikoslajiin yhtä aikaa. Huumerikollisuudella oli kuitenkin vähemmän itsenäisiä ennus- ja taustatekijöitä kuin muilla rikoslajeilla. Joka kymmenes poika kärsi psykiatrisista häiriöistä. Tämä ryhmä teki noin puolet kaikista rikoksista, ja lähes joka toinen poika, jolla oli psykiatrinen häiriö, oli rekisteröity rikoksista. Rikolliseen käytökseen liittyivät etenkin antisosiaalinen persoonallisuushäiriö ja päihdehäiriöt. Masennustilat olivat kuitenkin ainoa diagnoosiryhmä, joka ei ollut yhteydessä rikollisuuteen. Myös psykiatristen häiriöiden esiintyvyys kasvoi lineaarisesti rikosten määrän kanssa; aktiivisista uusintarikollisista yli puolella (59%) oli psykiatrinen diagnoosi. Rikollisuuden lisäksi erilaiset psykososiaaliset ongelmat kasautuivat pienelle vähemmistölle. Aktiivisten uusijoiden ryhmään olivat tilastollisesti merkitsevästi yhteydessä lähes kaikki ongelmat mitä tutkimme. Kuitenkin tästä ryhmästä vain alle 3% oli käyttänyt mielenterveyspalveluja viimeisen vuoden aikana. Rikossovittelun havainnointitutkimuksen perusteella sovittelussa monet perusasiat ovat kunnossa, ja toiminta on mielekästä niin asianosaisten kuin yhteiskunnankin kannalta. Useimmiten osapuolet kohtasivat ja saivat aikaan sopimuksen, johon he vaikuttivat tyytyväisiltä. Rikoksentekijät olivat motivoituneita korvaamaan aiheuttamansa vahingot. Osapuolet saivat kertoa tarinansa omin sanoin, heitä kuunneltiin ja he ymmärsivät mitä sovittelussa puhutaan ja sovitaan. Sovittelun kuluessa jännitys väheni ja asiat saatiin loppuunkäsiteltyä. Asianosaiset saivat vaikuttaa prosessiin ja sopimukseen, ja uhrin oikeudet olivat sovittelussa keskeisellä sijalla. Restoratiivisen teorian perusteella sovittelussa havaittiin myös kehittämisen varaa: Etenkin nuoria rikoksentekijöitä oli hankala saada osallistumaan tosissaan, ja aikuiset helposti hallitsivat keskustelua. Etukäteistapaamisia ja tukihenkilöitä ei juuri hyödynnetty. Sovitteluja hallitsi puhe sopimuksesta ja rahasta. Työkorvauksia ei käytetty eikä rehabilitaatiota käsitelty. Sekä sovitteluun pääsy että sovittelumenettely riippuivat yksittäisistä henkilöistä. Johtopäätökset Rikosten tekeminen nuoruudessa on melko yleistä ja monimuotoista. Rikokset ja psykososiaaliset ongelmat kasautuvat pienelle ryhmälle ja kulkevat käsi kädessä. Myös psykiatriset häiriöt ovat lineaarisessa yhteydessä rikosten määrään. Rikosriskiä voidaan ennustaa jo lapsuudessa, ja etenkin opettajat ovat tarkkanäköisiä lasten ongelmien suhteen. Eri rikoslajeilla on varsin samanlaisia taustatekijöitä. Aktiiviset rikoksentekijät vastaavat suuresta osasta kokonaisrikollisuutta, tarvitsevat eniten apua, mutta eivät kuitenkaan hakeudu psykososiaalisten palvelujen piiriin. Rikosten sovittelu tarjoaa keinon puuttua ongelmiin varhaisessa vaiheessa ilman leimaamista. Sovittelun kehitystehtävät liittyvät etenkin dialogiin, valmisteluihin, tukihenkilöihin, työkorvauksiin, palveluunohjaukseen ja sovittelun sovellusalaan. Sovittelua ja muita restoratiivisia menettelyjä on kehitettävä ja laajennettava esimerkiksi niin, että niitä voitaisiin käyttää palveluunohjauksen välineenä.

Development of research networks : the case of social capital

The aim of this study is to explore how a new concept appears inscientific discussion and research, how it diffuses to other fields and out of the scientific communities, and how the networks are formed around the concept. Text and terminology take the interest of a reader in the digital environment. Texts create networks where the terminology used is dependent on the ideas, viewsand paradigms of the field. This study is based mainly on bibliographic data. Materials for bibliometric studies have been collected from different databases. The databases are also evaluated and their quality and coverage are discussed. The thesauri of those databases that have been selected for a more in depth study have also been evaluated. The material selected has been used to study how long and in which ways an innovative publication, which can be seen as a milestone in a specific field, influences the research. The concept that has been chosen as a topic for this research is Social Capital, because it has been a popular concept in different scientific fields as well as in everyday speech and the media. It seemed to be a `fashion concept´ that appeared in different situations at the Millennium. The growth and diffusion of social capital publications has been studied. The terms connected with social capital in different fields and different stages of the development have also been analyzed. The methods that have been used in this study are growth and diffusion analysis, content analysis, citation analysis, coword analysis and cocitation analysis. One method that can be used tounderstand and to interpret results of these bibliometric studies is to interview some key persons, who are known to have a gatekeeper position in the diffusion of the concept. Thematic interviews with some Finnish researchers and specialists that have influenced the diffusion of social capital into Finnish scientificand social discussions provide background information. iv The Milestone Publications on social capital have been chosen and studied. They give answers to the question "What is Social Capital?" By comparing citations to Milestone Publications with the growth of all social capital publications in a database, we can drawconclusions about the point at which social capital became generally approved `tacit knowledge´. The contribution of the present study lies foremost in understanding the development of network structures around a new concept that has diffused in scientific communities and also outside them. The network means both networks of researchers, networks of publications and networks of concepts that describe the research field. The emphasis has been on the digital environment and onthe socalled information society that we are now living in, but in this transitional stage, the printed publications are still important and widely used in social sciences and humanities. The network formation is affected by social relations and informal contacts that push new ideas. This study also gives new information about using different research methods, like bibliometric methods supported by interviews and content analyses. It is evident that interpretation of bibliometric maps presupposes qualitative information and understanding of the phenomena under study.