Development and application of an analytical method for the determination of total atmospheric biogenic non-methane organic carbon

Ein wesentlicher Anteil an organischem Kohlenstoff, der in der Atmosphäre vorhanden ist, wird als leichtflüchtige organische Verbindungen gefunden. Diese werden überwiegend durch die Biosphäre freigesetzt. Solche biogenen Emissionen haben einen großen Einfluss auf die chemischen und physikalischen Eigenschaften der Atmosphäre, indem sie zur Bildung von bodennahem Ozon und sekundären organischen Aerosolen beitragen. Um die Bildung von bodennahem Ozon und von sekundären organischen Aerosolen besser zu verstehen, ist die technische Fähigkeit zur genauen Messung der Summe dieser flüchtigen organischen Substanzen notwendig. Häufig verwendete Methoden sind nur auf den Nachweis von spezifischen Nicht-Methan-Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen fokussiert. Die Summe dieser Einzelverbindungen könnte gegebenenfalls aber nur eine Untergrenze an atmosphärischen organischen Kohlenstoffkonzentrationen darstellen, da die verfügbaren Methoden nicht in der Lage sind, alle organischen Verbindungen in der Atmosphäre zu analysieren. Einige Studien sind bekannt, die sich mit der Gesamtkohlenstoffbestimmung von Nicht-Methan-Kohlenwasserstoffverbindung in Luft beschäftigt haben, aber Messungen des gesamten organischen Nicht-Methan-Verbindungsaustauschs zwischen Vegetation und Atmosphäre fehlen. Daher untersuchten wir die Gesamtkohlenstoffbestimmung organische Nicht-Methan-Verbindungen aus biogenen Quellen. Die Bestimmung des organischen Gesamtkohlenstoffs wurde durch Sammeln und Anreichern dieser Verbindungen auf einem festen Adsorptionsmaterial realisiert. Dieser erste Schritt war notwendig, um die stabilen Gase CO, CO2 und CH4 von der organischen Kohlenstofffraktion zu trennen. Die organischen Verbindungen wurden thermisch desorbiert und zu CO2 oxidiert. Das aus der Oxidation entstandene CO2 wurde auf einer weiteren Anreicherungseinheit gesammelt und durch thermische Desorption und anschließende Detektion mit einem Infrarot-Gasanalysator analysiert. Als große Schwierigkeiten identifizierten wir (i) die Abtrennung von CO2 aus der Umgebungsluft von der organischen Kohlenstoffverbindungsfaktion während der Anreicherung sowie (ii) die Widerfindungsraten der verschiedenen Nicht-Methan-Kohlenwasserstoff-verbindungen vom Adsorptionsmaterial, (iii) die Wahl des Katalysators sowie (iiii) auftretende Interferenzen am Detektor des Gesamtkohlenstoffanalysators. Die Wahl eines Pt-Rd Drahts als Katalysator führte zu einem bedeutenden Fortschritt in Bezug auf die korrekte Ermittlung des CO2-Hintergrund-Signals. Dies war notwendig, da CO2 auch in geringen Mengen auf der Adsorptionseinheit während der Anreicherung der leichtflüchtigen organischen Substanzen gesammelt wurde. Katalytische Materialien mit hohen Oberflächen stellten sich als unbrauchbar für diese Anwendung heraus, weil trotz hoher Temperaturen eine CO2-Aufnahme und eine spätere Abgabe durch das Katalysatormaterial beobachtet werden konnte. Die Methode wurde mit verschiedenen leichtflüchtigen organischen Einzelsubstanzen sowie in zwei Pflanzenkammer-Experimenten mit einer Auswahl an VOC-Spezies getestet, die von unterschiedlichen Pflanzen emittiert wurden. Die Pflanzenkammer-messungen wurden durch GC-MS und PTR-MS Messungen begleitet. Außerdem wurden Kalibrationstests mit verschiedenen Einzelsubstanzen aus Permeations-/Diffusionsquellen durchgeführt. Der Gesamtkohlenstoffanalysator konnte den tageszeitlichen Verlauf der Pflanzenemissionen bestätigen. Allerdings konnten Abweichungen für die Mischungsverhältnisse des organischen Gesamtkohlenstoffs von bis zu 50% im Vergleich zu den begleitenden Standardmethoden beobachtet werden.

Understanding the Continual Reassessment Method for Dose Finding Studies: An Overview for Non-Statisticians

The Continual Reassessment Method (CRM) has gained popularity since its proposal by O’Quigley et al. [1]. Many variations have been published and discussed in the statistical literature, but there has been little attention to making the design considerations accessible to non-statisticians. As a result, some clinicians or reviewers of clinical trials tend to be wary of the CRM due to safety concerns. This paper presents the CRM in a non-technical way, describing the original CRM with some of its modified versions. It also describes the specifications that define a CRM design, along with two simulated examples of CRMs for illustration.

Quantitative myocardial contrast echocardiography: a new method for the non-invasive detection of chronic heart transplant rejection

Chronic heart transplant rejection, i.e. cardiac allograft vasculopathy (CAV) is a major adverse prognostic factor after heart transplantation (HTx). This study tested the hypothesis that the relative myocardial blood volume (rBV) as quantified by myocardial contrast echocardiography accurately detects severe CAV as defined by coronary intravascular ultrasound (IVUS).

Airborne-particle Abrasion Is a Minimally Invasive Method to Pre-Treat Sclerotic, Non-Carious Cervical Dentin

Objectives: To investigate substance loss and bond strength capacity of sclerotic, non-carious cervical dentin after airborne-particle abrasion or diamond bur preparation. Methods: Fifteen non-sclerotic dentin specimens were made from crowns of extracted human incisors of which the labial surfaces had been ground with silicon carbide papers (non-sclerotic control; Group 1). Forty-five sclerotic dentin specimens (n=15/group) were made from the labial, non-carious cervical root part of extracted human incisors and underwent either no pre-treatment (sclerotic control; Group 2), pre-treatment with airborne-particle abrasion (CoJet Prep [3M ESPE] and 50 µm aluminium oxide; Group 3), or with diamond bur preparation (40 µm grit size; Group 4). Substance loss after pre-treatment was measured in Groups 3 and 4. Subsequently, Scotchbond Universal (3M ESPE) and resin composite (CeramX [DENTSPLY DeTrey]) were applied on the treated dentin surfaces. The specimens were stored at 37°C and 100% humidity for 24 h. After storage, shear bond strength (SBS) was measured and data analyzed with nonparametric ANOVA followed by Wilcoxon rank sum tests. Results: Substance loss (medians) was 19 µm in Group 3 and 113 µm in Group 4. SBS-values (MPa; medians) in Group 2 (9.24) were significantly lower than in Group 1 (13.15; p=0.0069), Group 3 (13.05; p=0.01), and Group 4 (13.02; p=0.0142). There were no significant differences in SBS between Groups 1, 3, and 4 (p≥0.8063). Conclusion: Airborne-particle abrasion and diamond bur preparation restored bond strength of Scotchbond Universal to sclerotic dentin to the level of non-sclerotic dentin, with airborne-particle abrasion being less invasive than diamond bur preparation.

The relationship between supermarket nutrient movements and the mortality rates from fat-associated and non-fat-associated cardiovascular disease: Development of an ecologic method for determining community food patterns

Supermarket nutrient movement, a community food consumption measure, aggregated 1,023 high-fat foods, representing 100% of visible fats and approximately 44% of hidden fats in the food supply (FAO, 1980). Fatty acid and cholesterol content of foods shipped from the warehouse to 47 supermarkets located in the Houston area were calculated over a 6 month period. These stores were located in census tracts with over 50% of a given ethnicity: Hispanic, black non-Hispanic, or white non-Hispanic. Categorizing the supermarket census tracts by predominant ethnicity, significant differences were found by ANOVA in the proportion of specific fatty acids and cholesterol content of the foods examined. Using ecological regression, ethnicity, income, and median age predicted supermarket lipid movements while residential stability did not. No associations were found between lipid movements and cardiovascular disease mortality, making further validation necessary for epidemiological application of this method. However, it has been shown to be a non-reactive and cost-effective method appropriate for tracking target foods in populations of groups, and for assessing the impact of mass media nutrition education, legislation, and fortification on community food and nutrient purchase patterns. ^

Advances in the Simultaneous Multiple Surface optical design method for imaging and non-imaging applications

Classical imaging optics has been developed over centuries in many areas, such as its paraxial imaging theory and practical design methods like multi-parametric optimization techniques. Although these imaging optical design methods can provide elegant solutions to many traditional optical problems, there are more and more new design problems, like solar concentrator, illumination system, ultra-compact camera, etc., that require maximum energy transfer efficiency, or ultra-compact optical structure. These problems do not have simple solutions from classical imaging design methods, because not only paraxial rays, but also non-paraxial rays should be well considered in the design process. Non-imaging optics is a newly developed optical discipline, which does not aim to form images, but to maximize energy transfer efficiency. One important concept developed from non-imaging optics is the “edge-ray principle”, which states that the energy flow contained in a bundle of rays will be transferred to the target, if all its edge rays are transferred to the target. Based on that concept, many CPC solar concentrators have been developed with efficiency close to the thermodynamic limit. When more than one bundle of edge-rays needs to be considered in the design, one way to obtain solutions is to use SMS method. SMS stands for Simultaneous Multiple Surface, which means several optical surfaces are constructed simultaneously. The SMS method was developed as a design method in Non-imaging optics during the 90s. The method can be considered as an extension to the Cartesian Oval calculation. In the traditional Cartesian Oval calculation, one optical surface is built to transform an input wave-front to an out-put wave-front. The SMS method however, is dedicated to solve more than 1 wave-fronts transformation problem. In the beginning, only 2 input wave-fronts and 2 output wave-fronts transformation problem was considered in the SMS design process for rotational optical systems or free-form optical systems. Usually “SMS 2D” method stands for the SMS procedure developed for rotational optical system, and “SMS 3D” method for the procedure for free-form optical system. Although the SMS method was originally employed in non-imaging optical system designs, it has been found during this thesis that with the improved capability to design more surfaces and control more input and output wave-fronts, the SMS method can also be applied to imaging system designs and possesses great advantage over traditional design methods. In this thesis, one of the main goals to achieve is to further develop the existing SMS-2D method to design with more surfaces and improve the stability of the SMS-2D and SMS-3D algorithms, so that further optimization process can be combined with SMS algorithms. The benefits of SMS plus optimization strategy over traditional optimization strategy will be explained in details for both rotational and free-form imaging optical system designs. Another main goal is to develop novel design concepts and methods suitable for challenging non-imaging applications, e.g. solar concentrator and solar tracker. This thesis comprises 9 chapters and can be grouped into two parts: the first part (chapter 2-5) contains research works in the imaging field, and the second part (chapter 6-8) contains works in the non-imaging field. In the first chapter, an introduction to basic imaging and non-imaging design concepts and theories is given. Chapter 2 presents a basic SMS-2D imaging design procedure using meridian rays. In this chapter, we will set the imaging design problem from the SMS point of view, and try to solve the problem numerically. The stability of this SMS-2D design procedure will also be discussed. The design concepts and procedures developed in this chapter lay the path for further improvement. Chapter 3 presents two improved SMS 3 surfaces’ design procedures using meridian rays (SMS-3M) and skew rays (SMS-1M2S) respectively. The major improvement has been made to the central segments selections, so that the whole SMS procedures become more stable compared to procedures described in Chapter 2. Since these two algorithms represent two types of phase space sampling, their image forming capabilities are compared in a simple objective design. Chapter 4 deals with an ultra-compact SWIR camera design with the SMS-3M method. The difficulties in this wide band camera design is how to maintain high image quality meanwhile reduce the overall system length. This interesting camera design provides a playground for the classical design method and SMS design methods. We will show designs and optical performance from both classical design method and the SMS design method. Tolerance study is also given as the end of the chapter. Chapter 5 develops a two-stage SMS-3D based optimization strategy for a 2 freeform mirrors imaging system. In the first optimization phase, the SMS-3D method is integrated into the optimization process to construct the two mirrors in an accurate way, drastically reducing the unknown parameters to only few system configuration parameters. In the second optimization phase, previous optimized mirrors are parameterized into Qbfs type polynomials and set up in code V. Code V optimization results demonstrates the effectiveness of this design strategy in this 2-mirror system design. Chapter 6 shows an etendue-squeezing condenser optics, which were prepared for the 2010 IODC illumination contest. This interesting design employs many non-imaging techniques such as the SMS method, etendue-squeezing tessellation, and groove surface design. This device has theoretical efficiency limit as high as 91.9%. Chapter 7 presents a freeform mirror-type solar concentrator with uniform irradiance on the solar cell. Traditional parabolic mirror concentrator has many drawbacks like hot-pot irradiance on the center of the cell, insufficient use of active cell area due to its rotational irradiance pattern and small acceptance angle. In order to conquer these limitations, a novel irradiance homogenization concept is developed, which lead to a free-form mirror design. Simulation results show that the free-form mirror reflector has rectangular irradiance pattern, uniform irradiance distribution and large acceptance angle, which confirm the viability of the design concept. Chapter 8 presents a novel beam-steering array optics design strategy. The goal of the design is to track large angle parallel rays by only moving optical arrays laterally, and convert it to small angle parallel output rays. The design concept is developed as an extended SMS method. Potential applications of this beam-steering device are: skylights to provide steerable natural illumination, building integrated CPV systems, and steerable LED illumination. Conclusion and future lines of work are given in Chapter 9. Resumen La óptica de formación de imagen clásica se ha ido desarrollando durante siglos, dando lugar tanto a la teoría de óptica paraxial y los métodos de diseño prácticos como a técnicas de optimización multiparamétricas. Aunque estos métodos de diseño óptico para formación de imagen puede aportar soluciones elegantes a muchos problemas convencionales, siguen apareciendo nuevos problemas de diseño óptico, concentradores solares, sistemas de iluminación, cámaras ultracompactas, etc. que requieren máxima transferencia de energía o dimensiones ultracompactas. Este tipo de problemas no se pueden resolver fácilmente con métodos clásicos de diseño porque durante el proceso de diseño no solamente se deben considerar los rayos paraxiales sino también los rayos no paraxiales. La óptica anidólica o no formadora de imagen es una disciplina que ha evolucionado en gran medida recientemente. Su objetivo no es formar imagen, es maximazar la eficiencia de transferencia de energía. Un concepto importante de la óptica anidólica son los “rayos marginales”, que se pueden utilizar para el diseño de sistemas ya que si todos los rayos marginales llegan a nuestra área del receptor, todos los rayos interiores también llegarán al receptor. Haciendo uso de este principio, se han diseñado muchos concentradores solares que funcionan cerca del límite teórico que marca la termodinámica. Cuando consideramos más de un haz de rayos marginales en nuestro diseño, una posible solución es usar el método SMS (Simultaneous Multiple Surface), el cuál diseña simultáneamente varias superficies ópticas. El SMS nació como un método de diseño para óptica anidólica durante los años 90. El método puede ser considerado como una extensión del cálculo del óvalo cartesiano. En el método del óvalo cartesiano convencional, se calcula una superficie para transformar un frente de onda entrante a otro frente de onda saliente. El método SMS permite transformar varios frentes de onda de entrada en frentes de onda de salida. Inicialmente, sólo era posible transformar dos frentes de onda con dos superficies con simetría de rotación y sin simetría de rotación, pero esta limitación ha sido superada recientemente. Nos referimos a “SMS 2D” como el método orientado a construir superficies con simetría de rotación y llamamos “SMS 3D” al método para construir superficies sin simetría de rotación o free-form. Aunque el método originalmente fue aplicado en el diseño de sistemas anidólicos, se ha observado que gracias a su capacidad para diseñar más superficies y controlar más frentes de onda de entrada y de salida, el SMS también es posible aplicarlo a sistemas de formación de imagen proporcionando una gran ventaja sobre los métodos de diseño tradicionales. Uno de los principales objetivos de la presente tesis es extender el método SMS-2D para permitir el diseño de sistemas con mayor número de superficies y mejorar la estabilidad de los algoritmos del SMS-2D y SMS-3D, haciendo posible combinar la optimización con los algoritmos. Los beneficios de combinar SMS y optimización comparado con el proceso de optimización tradicional se explican en detalle para sistemas con simetría de rotación y sin simetría de rotación. Otro objetivo importante de la tesis es el desarrollo de nuevos conceptos de diseño y nuevos métodos en el área de la concentración solar fotovoltaica. La tesis está estructurada en 9 capítulos que están agrupados en dos partes: la primera de ellas (capítulos 2-5) se centra en la óptica formadora de imagen mientras que en la segunda parte (capítulos 6-8) se presenta el trabajo del área de la óptica anidólica. El primer capítulo consta de una breve introducción de los conceptos básicos de la óptica anidólica y la óptica en formación de imagen. El capítulo 2 describe un proceso de diseño SMS-2D sencillo basado en los rayos meridianos. En este capítulo se presenta el problema de diseñar un sistema formador de imagen desde el punto de vista del SMS y se intenta obtener una solución de manera numérica. La estabilidad de este proceso se analiza con detalle. Los conceptos de diseño y los algoritmos desarrollados en este capítulo sientan la base sobre la cual se realizarán mejoras. El capítulo 3 presenta dos procedimientos para el diseño de un sistema con 3 superficies SMS, el primero basado en rayos meridianos (SMS-3M) y el segundo basado en rayos oblicuos (SMS-1M2S). La mejora más destacable recae en la selección de los segmentos centrales, que hacen más estable todo el proceso de diseño comparado con el presentado en el capítulo 2. Estos dos algoritmos representan dos tipos de muestreo del espacio de fases, su capacidad para formar imagen se compara diseñando un objetivo simple con cada uno de ellos. En el capítulo 4 se presenta un diseño ultra-compacto de una cámara SWIR diseñada usando el método SMS-3M. La dificultad del diseño de esta cámara de espectro ancho radica en mantener una alta calidad de imagen y al mismo tiempo reducir drásticamente sus dimensiones. Esta cámara es muy interesante para comparar el método de diseño clásico y el método de SMS. En este capítulo se presentan ambos diseños y se analizan sus características ópticas. En el capítulo 5 se describe la estrategia de optimización basada en el método SMS-3D. El método SMS-3D calcula las superficies ópticas de manera precisa, dejando sólo unos pocos parámetros libres para decidir la configuración del sistema. Modificando el valor de estos parámetros se genera cada vez mediante SMS-3D un sistema completo diferente. La optimización se lleva a cabo variando los mencionados parámetros y analizando el sistema generado. Los resultados muestran que esta estrategia de diseño es muy eficaz y eficiente para un sistema formado por dos espejos. En el capítulo 6 se describe un sistema de compresión de la Etendue, que fue presentado en el concurso de iluminación del IODC en 2010. Este interesante diseño hace uso de técnicas propias de la óptica anidólica, como el método SMS, el teselado de las lentes y el diseño mediante grooves. Este dispositivo tiene un límite teórica en la eficiencia del 91.9%. El capítulo 7 presenta un concentrador solar basado en un espejo free-form con irradiancia uniforme sobre la célula. Los concentradores parabólicos tienen numerosas desventajas como los puntos calientes en la zona central de la célula, uso no eficiente del área de la célula al ser ésta cuadrada y además tienen ángulos de aceptancia de reducido. Para poder superar estas limitaciones se propone un novedoso concepto de homogeneización de la irrandancia que se materializa en un diseño con espejo free-form. El análisis mediante simulación demuestra que la irradiancia es homogénea en una región rectangular y con mayor ángulo de aceptancia, lo que confirma la viabilidad del concepto de diseño. En el capítulo 8 se presenta un novedoso concepto para el diseño de sistemas afocales dinámicos. El objetivo del diseño es realizar un sistema cuyo haz de rayos de entrada pueda llegar con ángulos entre ±45º mientras que el haz de rayos a la salida sea siempre perpendicular al sistema, variando únicamente la posición de los elementos ópticos lateralmente. Las aplicaciones potenciales de este dispositivo son varias: tragaluces que proporcionan iluminación natural, sistemas de concentración fotovoltaica integrados en los edificios o iluminación direccionable con LEDs. Finalmente, el último capítulo contiene las conclusiones y las líneas de investigación futura.

Simplified computational method for non-linear seismic analysis of bridges

After the experience gained during the past years it seems clear that nonlinear analysis of bridges are very important to compute ductility demands and to localize potential hinges. This is specially true for irregular bridges in which it is not clear weather or not it is possible to use a linear computation followed by a correction using a behaviour factor. To simplify the numerical effort several approximate methods have been proposed. Among them, the so-called Dynamic Plastic Hinge Method in which an evolutionary shape function is used to reduce the structure to a single degree of freedom system seems to mantein a good balance between accuracy and simplicity. This paper presents results obtained in a parametric study conducted under the auspicies of PREC-8 european research program.

A novel ground fault non-directional selective protection method for ungrounded distribution networks

This paper presents a new selective and non-directional protection method to detect ground faults in neutral isolated power systems. The new proposed method is based on the comparison of the rms value of the residual current of all the lines connected to a bus, and it is able to determine the line with ground defect. Additionally, this method can be used for the protection of secondary substation. This protection method avoids the unwanted trips produced by wrong settings or wiring errors, which sometimes occur in the existing directional ground fault protections. This new method has been validated through computer simulations and experimental laboratory tests.

Evaluation of sampling method effects in 3D non-rigid registration

Since the beginning of 3D computer vision problems, the use of techniques to reduce the data to make it treatable preserving the important aspects of the scene has been necessary. Currently, with the new low-cost RGB-D sensors, which provide a stream of color and 3D data of approximately 30 frames per second, this is getting more relevance. Many applications make use of these sensors and need a preprocessing to downsample the data in order to either reduce the processing time or improve the data (e.g., reducing noise or enhancing the important features). In this paper, we present a comparison of different downsampling techniques which are based on different principles. Concretely, five different downsampling methods are included: a bilinear-based method, a normal-based, a color-based, a combination of the normal and color-based samplings, and a growing neural gas (GNG)-based approach. For the comparison, two different models have been used acquired with the Blensor software. Moreover, to evaluate the effect of the downsampling in a real application, a 3D non-rigid registration is performed with the data sampled. From the experimentation we can conclude that depending on the purpose of the application some kernels of the sampling methods can improve drastically the results. Bilinear- and GNG-based methods provide homogeneous point clouds, but color-based and normal-based provide datasets with higher density of points in areas with specific features. In the non-rigid application, if a color-based sampled point cloud is used, it is possible to properly register two datasets for cases where intensity data are relevant in the model and outperform the results if only a homogeneous sampling is used.