Systematic studies of protein immobilization by surface plasmon field-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy

The research interest of this study is to investigate surface immobilization strategies for proteins and other biomolecules by the surface plasmon field-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy (SPFS) technique. The recrystallization features of the S-layer proteins and the possibility of combining the S-layer lattice arrays with other functional molecules make this protein a prime candidate for supramolecular architectures. The recrystallization behavior on gold or on the secondary cell wall polymer (SCWP) was recorded by SPR. The optical thicknesses and surface densities for different protein layers were calculated. In DNA hybridization tests performed in order to discriminate different mismatches, recombinant S-layer-streptavidin fusion protein matrices showed their potential for new microarrays. Moreover, SCWPs coated gold chips, covered with a controlled and oriented assembly of S-layer fusion proteins, represent an even more sensitive fluorescence testing platform. Additionally, S-layer fusion proteins as the matrix for LHCII immobilization strongly demonstrate superiority over routine approaches, proving the possibility of utilizing them as a new strategy for biomolecular coupling. In the study of the SPFS hCG immunoassay, the biophysical and immunological characteristics of this glycoprotein hormone were presented first. After the investigation of the effect of the biotin thiol dilution on the coupling efficiently, the interfacial binding model including the appropriate binary SAM structure and the versatile streptavidin-biotin interaction was chosen as the basic supramolecular architecture for the fabrication of a SPFS-based immunoassay. Next, the affinity characteristics between different antibodies and hCG were measured via an equilibrium binding analysis, which is the first example for the titration of such a high affinity interaction by SPFS. The results agree very well with the constants derived from the literature. Finally, a sandwich assay and a competitive assay were selected as templates for SPFS-based hCG detection, and an excellent LOD of 0.15 mIU/ml was attained via the “one step” sandwich method. Such high sensitivity not only fulfills clinical requirements, but is also better than most other biosensors. Fully understanding how LHCII complexes transfer the sunlight energy directionally and efficiently to the reaction center is potentially useful for constructing biomimetic devices as solar cells. After the introduction of the structural and the spectroscopic features of LHCII, different surface immobilization strategies of LHCII were summarized next. Among them the strategy based on the His-tag and the immobilized metal (ion) affinity chromatography (IMAC) technique were of great interest and resulted in different kinds of home-fabricated His-tag chelating chips. Their substantial protein coupling capacity, maintenance of high biological activity and a remarkably repeatable binding ability on the same chip after regeneration was demonstrated. Moreover, different parameters related to the stability of surface coupled reconstituted complexes, including sucrose, detergent, lipid, oligomerization, temperature and circulation rate, were evaluated in order to standardize the most effective immobilization conditions. In addition, partial lipid bilayers obtained from LHCII contained proteo-liposomes fusion on the surface were observed by the QCM technique. Finally, the inter-complex energy transfer between neighboring LHCIIs on a gold protected silver surface by excitation with a blue laser (λ = 473nm) was recorded for the first time, and the factors influencing the energy transfer efficiency were evaluated.

A hybrid technology for parallel recording of single ion channels

Hybrid technologies, thanks to the convergence of integrated microelectronic devices and new class of microfluidic structures could open new perspectives to the way how nanoscale events are discovered, monitored and controlled. The key point of this thesis is to evaluate the impact of such an approach into applications of ion-channel High Throughput Screening (HTS)platforms. This approach offers promising opportunities for the development of new classes of sensitive, reliable and cheap sensors. There are numerous advantages of embedding microelectronic readout structures strictly coupled to sensing elements. On the one hand the signal-to-noise-ratio is increased as a result of scaling. On the other, the readout miniaturization allows organization of sensors into arrays, increasing the capability of the platform in terms of number of acquired data, as required in the HTS approach, to improve sensing accuracy and reliabiity. However, accurate interface design is required to establish efficient communication between ionic-based and electronic-based signals. The work made in this thesis will show a first example of a complete parallel readout system with single ion channel resolution, using a compact and scalable hybrid architecture suitable to be interfaced to large array of sensors, ensuring simultaneous signal recording and smart control of the signal-to-noise ratio and bandwidth trade off. More specifically, an array of microfluidic polymer structures, hosting artificial lipid bilayers blocks where single ion channel pores are embededed, is coupled with an array of ultra-low noise current amplifiers for signal amplification and data processing. As demonstrating working example, the platform was used to acquire ultra small currents derived by single non-covalent molecular binding between alpha-hemolysin pores and beta-cyclodextrin molecules in artificial lipid membranes.

New synthetic strategies to tethered bilayer lipid membranes

Tethered bilayer lipid membranes provide an efficient, stable and versatile platform for the investigation of integrated membrane proteins. However, the incorporation of large proteins, as well as of proteins with a large submembrane part is still a very critical issue and therefore, further optimisation of the system is necessary. The central element of a tBLM is a lipid bilayer. Its proximal leaflet is, at least to some extend, covalently attached to a solid support via a spacer group. The anchor lipid consists of three distinct parts, a lipid headgroup, a spacer group and an anchor. All parts together influence the final bilayer properties. In the frame of this work, the synthesis of new thiolipids for tBLMs on gold has been investigated. The aim was to obtain molecules with longer spacers in order to increase the submembrane space. The systems obtained have been characterized using SPR and EIS. The results obtained during this study are multiple. First, the synthesis of a previously synthesized architecture was successfully scaled up in an industrial lab using a new synthetic approach. The synthesis of large amounts is now feasible. Then, the synthesis of the new thiolipids was carried out taking into account the following requirements: the increase of the submembrane space by having longer ethyleneglycol spacers, the attachment of the molecules to a gold substrate via a thiol bond, and the tunability of the lateral mobility by changing the lipid headgroup. Three different synthetic strategies have been investigated. The polymeric approach did not prove to be successful, merely because of the broad molecular weight distribution. The synthesis of heterofunctionally protected oligoethyleneglycols allowed to obtain ethyleneglycol moieties with 6 and 8 units, but the tedious purification steps gave very low yields. Finally, the block by block synthesis using ethyleneglycol precursors proved to be an efficient and fast method to synthesize the target molecules. Indeed, these were obtained with very high yields, and the separation was very efficient. A whole family of new compounds was obtained, having 6, 8 and 14 ethyleneglycol units and with mono- or diphytanyl lipid headgroups. This new pathway is a very promising synthetic strategy that can be used further in the development of new compounds of the tether system. The formation of bilayers was investigated for the different thiolipids mainly by using EIS. The electrical properties of a bilayer define the quality of the membrane and allow the study of the functionality of proteins embedded in such a system. Despite multiple trials to improve the system using self assembly, Langmuir Blodgett transfer, and detergent mixed vesicles, the new polymer thiolipids did not show as high electrical properties as tBLMs reported in the literature. Nevertheless, it was possible to show that a bilayer could be obtained for the different spacer lengths. These bilayers could be formed using self assembly for the first monolayer, and two different methods for bilayer formation, namely vesicle fusion and solvent exchange. We could furthermore show functional incorporation of the ion carrier valinomycin: the selective transport of K+ ions could be demonstrated. For DPHL, it was even possible to show the functional incorporation of the ion channel gramicidin. The influence of the spacer length is translated into an increase of the spacer capacitance, which could correspond to an increase in the capacity of charge accumulation in the submembrane space. The different systems need to be further optimised to improve the electrical properties of the bilayer. Moreover, the incorporation of larger proteins, and proteins bearing submembrane parts needs to be investigated.

Reaktive Polymere zur funktionellen Oberflächenbeschichtung

Ziel dieser Arbeit war die gezielte Modifizierung von Oberflächen mittels multifunktioneller Polymere, die ausgehend von Aktivesterpolymeren durch polymeranaloge Reaktionen unter milden Bedingungen hergestellt werden konnten. Dazu wurden die neuartigen Akivestermonomere Pentafluorphenylacrylat PFA und Pentafluorphenylmethacrylat PFMA hergestellt und polymerisiert. PFMA konnte unter RAFT-Bedingungen mittels Cumyldithiobenzoat bzw. 4-Cyano-4-((thiobenzoyl)sulfanyl)pentansäure kontrolliert polymerisiert werden. Durch den RAFT-Prozess wurden weiterhin reaktive Blockcopolymere aus PFMA und Methylmethacrylat, N Acryloylmorpholin bzw. N,N Diethylacrylamid synthetisiert. Zur Herstellung alpha, omega-endfunktionalisierter Polymere wurde PFA mit Dithiobenzoesäure-(4-dodecylbenzyl)ester polymerisiert und durch anschließende polymeranaloge Reaktionen zu thermoschaltbaren Polymeren mit unterschiedlichem LCST-Verhalten umgesetzt, die den Aufbau polymerunterstützter Lipiddoppelschichten ermöglichen. Ausgehend von poly(PFA) wurden oberflächenaktiven multifunktionellen Polymeren hergestellt und zur Oberflächenmodifizierung von anorganischen TiO2 Nanopartikeln, TiO2-Nanodrähten und MoS2-Nanopartikeln eingesetzt. Es konnten so lösliche fluoreszierende TiO2-Nanopartikel sowohl durch in situ- als auch post-Funktionalisierung hergestellt werden. Zudem konnte durch Verwendung eines multifunktionellen Polymers mit NTA-Einheiten das Enzym Silicatein auf TiO2-Nanodrähten immobilisert werden, das durch Biokristallisation Aggregate aus TiO2-Nanodrähten und Goldnanopartikeln erzeugte.

Untersuchung der lateralen Organisation und Phasenumwandlung von festkörperunterstützten Lipidmembranen

Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde das Bindungsverhalten von Annexin A1 und Annexin A2t an festkörperunterstützte Lipidmembranen aus POPC und POPS untersucht. Für beide Proteine konnte mit Hilfe der Fluoreszenzmikroskopie gezeigt werden, dass irreversible Bindung nur in Anwesenheit von POPS auftritt. Durch rasterkraftmikroskopische Aufnahmen konnte die laterale Organisation der Annexine auf der Lipidmembran dargestellt werden. Beide Proteine lagern sich in Form lateraler Aggregate (zweidimensionale Domänen) auf der Oberfläche an, außerdem ist der Belegungsgrad und die Größe der Domänen von der Membranzusammensetzung und der Calciumkonzentration abhängig. Mit zunehmendem POPS-Gehalt und Calciumkonzentration steigt der Belegungsgrad an und der mittlere Domänenradius wird kleiner. Diese Ergebnisse konnten in Verbindung mit detaillierten Bindungsstudien des Annexins A1 mit der Quarzmikrowaage verwendet werden, um ein Bindungsmodell auf Basis einer heterogenen Oberfläche zu entwickeln. Auf einer POPC-reichen Matrix findet reversible Adsorption statt und auf POPS-reichen Domänen irreversible Adsorption. Durch die Anpassung von dynamischen Monte Carlo-Simulationen basierend auf einer zweidimensionalen zufälligen sequentiellen Adsorption konnten Erkenntnisse über die Membranstruktur und die kinetischen Ratenkonstanten in Abhängigkeit von der Calciumkonzentration und der Inkubationszeit des Proteins gewonnen werden. Die irreversible Bindung ist in allen Calciumkonzentrationsbereichen schneller als die reversible. Außerdem zeigt die irreversible Adsorption eine deutlich stärkere Abhängigkeit von der Calciumkonzentration. Ein kleinerer Belegungsgrad bei niedrigen Ca2+-Gehalten ist hauptsächlich durch die Abnahme der verfügbaren Bindungsplätze auf der Oberfläche zu erklären. Die gute Übereinstimmung der aus den Monte Carlo-Simulationen erhaltenen Domänenstrukturen mit den rasterkraftmikroskopischen Aufnahmen und die Tatsache, dass sich die simulierten Resonanzfrequenzverläufe problemlos an die experimentellen Kurven aus den QCM-Messungen anpassen ließen, zeigt die gute Anwendbarkeit des entwickelten Simulationsprogramms auf die Adsorption von Annexin A1. Die Extraktion der kinetischen Parameter aus dem zweidimensionalen RSA-Modell ist mit Sicherheit einem einfachen Langmuir-Ansatz überlegen. Bei einem Langmuir-Modell erfolgt eine integrale Erfassung einer einzelnen makroskopischen Geschwindigkeitskonstante, während durch das RSA-Modell eine differenzierte Betrachtung des reversiblen und irreversiblen Bindungsprozesses möglich ist. Zusätzlich lassen sich mikroskopische Informationen über die Oberflächenbeschaffenheit gewinnen. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde das thermotrope Phasenverhalten von festkörperunterstützten Phospholipidbilayern untersucht. Dazu wurden mikrostrukturierte, frei stehende Membranstreifen präpariert und mit Hilfe der bildgebenden Ellipsometrie untersucht. Dadurch konnten die temperaturabhängigen Verläufe der Schichtdicke und der lateralen Membranausdehnung parallel beobachtet werden. Die ermittelten Phasenübergangstemperaturen von DMPC, diC15PC und DPPC lagen 2 - 3 °C oberhalb der Literaturwerte für vesikuläre Systeme. Außerdem wurde eine deutliche Verringerung der Kooperativität der Phasenumwandlung gefunden, was auf einen großen Einfluss des Substrats bei den festkörperunterstützten Lipidmembranen schließen lässt. Zusätzlich wurde ein nicht systematischer Zusammenhang der Ergebnisse von der Oberflächenpräparation gefunden, der es unabdingbar macht, bei Untersuchungen von festkörperunterstützten Substraten einen internen Standard einzuführen. Bei der Analyse des thermotropen Phasenübergangsverhaltens von DMPC/Cholesterol - Gemischen wurde daher die individuelle Adressierbarkeit der strukturierten Lipidmembranen ausgenutzt und ein Lipidstreifen aus reinem DMPC als Standard verwendet. Auf diese Weise konnte gezeigt werden, dass das für Phospholipide typische Phasenübergangsverhalten ab 30 mol% Cholesterol in der Membran nicht mehr vorhanden ist. Dies ist auf die Bildung einer nur durch höhere Sterole induzierten fluiden Phase mit hoch geordneten Acylketten zurückzuführen. Abschließend konnte durch die Zugabe von Ethanol zu einer mikrostrukturierten DMPC-Membran die Bildung eines interdigitierten Bilayers nachgewiesen werden. Die bildgebende Ellipsometrie ist eine sehr gute Methode zur Untersuchung festkörperunterstützter Lipidmembranen, da sie über ein sehr gutes vertikales und ein ausreichendes laterales Auflösungsvermögen besitzt. Sie ist darin zwar einem Rasterkraftmikroskop noch unterlegen, besitzt dafür aber eine einfachere Handhabung beim Umgang mit Flüssigkeiten und in der Temperierung, eine schnellere Bildgebung und ist als optische Methode nicht-invasiv.

Ion channels in mixed tethered bilayer lipid membranes

Mixed tethered bilayer lipid membranes (tBLMs) are described based on the self-assembly of a monolayer on template stripped gold, of an archea analogue thiolipid, 2,3-di-o-phytanyl-sn-glycerol-1-tetraethylene glycol-D,L--lipoic acid ester lipid (DPTL), and a newly designed dilution molecule, tetraethylene glycol-D,L--lipoic acid ester (TEGL). The usage of spacer and addition of extra dilution molecules between the substrate and the bilayer is that this architecture provides an ionic reservoir underneath the membrane, avoiding direct contact of the embedded membrane proteins with the gold electrodes and increasing the lateral diffusion of the bilayer, thus allowing for the incorporation of complex channels proteins which are failed in non-diluted systems. The tBLM is completed by fusion of liposomes made from a mixture of 1,2-diphythanolyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPhyPC), cholesterol, and 1,2-diphytanoyl-sn-Glycero-3-phosphate (DPhyPG) in a molar ratio of 6:3:1. Varying the mixing ratio, the optimum mixing ratio was obtained at a dilution factor of DPTL and TEGL at 90%:10%. Only under these conditions, the mixed tBLM showed electrical properties, as shown by EIS, which are comparable to a BLM. With higher dilution factors, a defect-free lipid bilayer was not formed. Formation of bilayers have been characterized by different techniques, such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). Different proteins such as hemolysin, melittin, gramicidin, M2, Maxi-K, nAChR and bacteriohodopsin are incorporated into these tBLMs as shown by SPR and EIS studies. Ionic conductivity at 0 V vs. Ag|AgCl, 3M KCl were measured by EIS measurements. Our results indicate that these proteins have been successfully incorporated into a very stable tBLM environment in a functionally active form. Therefore, we conclude that the mixed tBLMs have been successfully designed as a general platform for biosensing and screening purposes of membrane proteins.

Mimicking the pre-hairpin intermediate of gp41

A novel screening platform for potential retroviral fusion inhibitors on the basis of fully functional membrane‐anchored coiled coil lipopeptide receptors has been established. The work comprises the scrutiny of lateral organization of functional lipids in phase separated bilayers and an in‐depth investigation of the biophysical properties of lipopeptide‐based receptors. Lateral sorting of lipids was detected by the recognition of streptavidin of biotinylated lipids in phase separated bilayers and by nanoscopic patterns in mixed fluorocarbon / hydrocarbon lipid bilayers, employing temperature controlled atomic force microscopy (AFM) as a versatile characterization method. Particular features of fluorocarbon bilayers were additionally investigated in great detail by means of ellipsometry and ATR‐IR spectroscopy. Lipopeptide‐receptors were synthesized on the basis of a robust and reliable in situ coupling reaction by coupling terminal cysteine modified receptor‐peptides to a maleimide functionalized lipid bilayer. Receptor functionality of the lipopeptides was visualized by specific binding of vesicles and nanoparticles tracked by a multiplicity of characterization methods, such as AFM, ellipsometry, CLSM and fluorescence spectroscopy. Finally, in situ coupling of viral peptides, originating from the fusion protein of HIV resulted in a mimic of the pre‐hairpin intermediate of gp41. Structural analysis of N36‐lipopepides by means of CD‐spectroscopy in combination with FT‐IR spectroscopy revealed a coiled coil assembly of lipopeptides, which render the aggregates fully functional receptors for potent fusion inhibitors. Thereby, reversible inhibitor binding of T20 and the corresponding C‐ peptides was detected by AFM and ellipsometry, rendering coiled coil lipopeptides a new promising technique for screening of retroviral fusion inhibitors.

Spin-crossover in metallomesogens of iron(II)

Covalent grafting mesogenic groups to the coordination cores of the parent mononuclear low-spin and spin-crossover compounds afforded metallomesogenic complexes of iron(II). In comparison with the parent complexes the spin-crossover properties of the alkylated derivatives are substantially modified. The type of the modification was found to be dependent on the properties of the parent system and the nature of the used anion, however, the general tendency is the destabilization of the low-spin state at the favor of spin-crossover or high-spin behavior below 400 K. The structural insight revealed the micro-segregated layered organization. The effect of the alkylation of the parent compounds consists first of all in the change of the lattice to a two-dimensional lamellar one retaining significant intermolecular contacts only within the ionic bilayers. The comprehensive analysis of the structural and thermodynamic data in the homologous series pointed at the mechanism of the interplay between the structural modification on melting and the induced anomalous change of the magnetic properties. A family of one-dimensional spin-crossover polymers was synthesized and characterized using a series of spectroscopic methods, X-ray powder diffraction, magnetic susceptibility measurements and differential scanning calorimetry. The copper analogue of was also synthesized and its crystal structure solved. In comparison with the mononuclear systems, the polymeric mesogens of iron(II) are less sensitive to the glass transition, which was attributed to the moderate concomitant variation of the structure. Nevertheless, the observed increase of the magnetic hysteresis with lengthening of the alkyl substituents was ascribed to the interplay of the structural reorganization of the coordination core due to spin-crossover with the structural delay in the spatial reorganization of the mesogenic substituents. The classification of mononuclear and polymeric metallomesogens according to the interactions between the structural- and the spin-transition and analysis of the data on the reported spin-crossover metallomesogens led to the separation of three types, namely: Type i: systems with coupling between the electronic structure of the iron(II) ions and the mesomorphic behavior of the substance; Type ii: systems where both transitions coexist in the same temperature region but are not coupled due to competition with the dehydration or due to negligible structural transformation; Type iii: systems where both transitions occur in different temperature regions and therefore are uncoupled. Fine-tuning, in particular regarding the temperature at which the spin-transition occurs with hysteresis properties responsible for the memory effect, are still a major challenge towards practical implementation of spin-crossover materials. A possible answer to the problem could be materials in which the spin-crossover transition is coupled with another transition easily controllable by external stimuli. In the present thesis we have shown the viability of the approach realized in the mesogenic systems with coupled phase- and spin-transitions.

Structural characterisation of tBLMs

Biological membranes are one of the vital key elements of life but are also highly complex architectures. Therefore, various model membrane systems have been developed to enable systematic investigations of different membrane related processes. A biomimetic model architecture should provide a simplified system, which allows for systematic investigation of the membrane while maintaining the essential membrane characteristics such as membrane fluidity or electrical sealing properties. This work has been focused on two complementary parts. In a first part, the behaviour of the whey protein ß-lactoglobulin (ßlg) at a membrane interface has been investigated. Protein-lipid interactions have been studied using Langmuir monolayers at the air-water interface and tethered bilayer lipid membranes. A combination of different surface analytical techniques such as surface plasmon spectroscopy, neutron reflectivity and electrochemical techniques allowed for a detailed analysis of the underlying processes. Those experiments showed that the protein adsorbed in native confirmation, slightly flattened, to hydrophobic monolayers. If hydrophilic bilayers with defects were present, ßlg penetrated the upper layer. Interactions with phospholipids were only observed if the protein was denatured beforehand. Experiments at the air-water interface showed a more rigid conformation of the protein at acidic pH compared to alkaline pH. In the second part of this work, the structure of different model membrane systems has been investigated. Solid supported membrane systems have been established as powerful biomimetic architectures, which allow for the systematic investigation of various membrane related processes. Additionally, these systems have been proposed for biosensing applications. Tethered bilayer lipid membranes (tBLMS) are one type of solid supported membranes. The structure of the anchor lipid that tethers the membrane to the solid support has a significant impact on the membrane properties. Especially the sub-membrane part, which is defined by the spacer group, is important for the biological activity of incorporated membrane proteins. Various anchor lipids have been synthesised with different spacer and anchor groups. An increase of the spacer length led to a direct increase of the water reservoir beneath the membrane. However, this elongation also resulted in an amplified roughness of the monolayer and subsequently to diminished mechanical and electrical bilayer qualities. Additionally, a cholesterol-spacer had been designed to modulate the membrane fluidity. Model membrane systems with additional cholesterol-spacer or upper bilayer leaflets with additional cholesterol also exhibited an increased water reservoir with only slightly diminished mechanical and electrical abilities. Both parts show that tBLMs are very effective model systems that can be applied as biomimetic platforms to study for example lipid-protein interactions. They also enable the incorporation of ion channels and allow for potential biosensing application.

New sensing platforms based on nanoscopic devices for probing protein-membrane interactions

A novel nanosized and addressable sensing platform based on membrane coated plasmonic particles for detection of protein adsorption using dark field scattering spectroscopy of single particles has been established. To this end, a detailed analysis of the deposition of gold nanorods on differently functionalized substrates is performed in relation to various factors (such as the pH, ionic strength, concentration of colloidal suspension, incubation time) in order to find the optimal conditions for obtaining a homogenous distribution of particles at the desired surface number density. The possibility of successfully draping lipid bilayers over the gold particles immobilized on glass substrates depends on the careful adjustment of parameters such as membrane curvature and adhesion properties and is demonstrated with complementary techniques such as phase imaging AFM, fluorescence microscopy (including FRAP) and single particle spectroscopy. The functionality and sensitivity of the proposed sensing platform is unequivocally certified by the resonance shifts of the plasmonic particles that were individually interrogated with single particle spectroscopy upon the adsorption of streptavidin to biotinylated lipid membranes. This new detection approach that employs particles as nanoscopic reporters for biomolecular interactions insures a highly localized sensitivity that offers the possibility to screen lateral inhomogeneities of native membranes. As an alternative to the 2D array of gold nanorods, short range ordered arrays of nanoholes in optically transparent gold films or regular arrays of truncated tetrahedron shaped particles are built by means of colloidal nanolithography on transparent substrates. Technical issues mainly related to the optimization of the mask deposition conditions are successfully addressed such that extended areas of homogenously nanostructured gold surfaces are achieved. Adsorption of the proteins annexin A1 and prothrombin on multicomponent lipid membranes as well as the hydrolytic activity of the phospholipase PLA2 were investigated with classical techniques such as AFM, ellipsometry and fluorescence microscopy. At first, the issues of lateral phase separation in membranes of various lipid compositions and the dependency of the domains configuration (sizes and shapes) on the membrane content are addressed. It is shown that the tendency for phase segregation of gel and fluid phase lipid mixtures is accentuated in the presence of divalent calcium ions for membranes containing anionic lipids as compared to neutral bilayers. Annexin A1 adsorbs preferentially and irreversibly on preformed phosphatidylserine (PS) enriched lipid domains but, dependent on the PS content of the bilayer, the protein itself may induce clustering of the anionic lipids into areas with high binding affinity. Corroborated evidence from AFM and fluorescence experiments confirm the hypothesis of a specifically increased hydrolytic activity of PLA2 on the highly curved regions of membranes due to a facilitated access of lipase to the cleavage sites of the lipids. The influence of the nanoscale gold surface topography on the adhesion of lipid vesicles is unambiguously demonstrated and this reveals, at least in part, an answer for the controversial question existent in the literature about the behavior of lipid vesicles interacting with bare gold substrates. The possibility of formation monolayers of lipid vesicles on chemically untreated gold substrates decorated with gold nanorods opens new perspectives for biosensing applications that involve the radiative decay engineering of the plasmonic particles.

Elastizität porenüberspannender Membranen: eine kraftmikroskopische Studie

Membranen spielen eine essentielle Rolle bei vielen wichtigen zellulären Prozessen. Sie ermöglichen die Erzeugung von chemischen Gradienten zwischen dem Zellinneren und der Umgebung. Die Zellmembran übernimmt wesentliche Aufgaben bei der intra- und extrazellulären Signalweiterleitung und der Adhäsion an Oberflächen. Durch Prozesse wie Endozytose und Exozytose werden Stoffe in oder aus der Zelle transportiert, eingehüllt in Vesikel, welche aus der Zellmembran geformt werden. Zusätzlich bietet sie auch Schutz für das Zellinnere. Der Hauptbestandteil einer Zellmembran ist die Lipiddoppelschicht, eine zweidimensionale fluide Matrix mit einer heterogenen Zusammensetzung aus unterschiedlichen Lipiden. In dieser Matrix befinden sich weitere Bausteine, wie z.B. Proteine. An der Innenseite der Zelle ist die Membran über Ankerproteine an das Zytoskelett gekoppelt. Dieses Polymernetzwerk erhöht unter anderem die Stabilität, beeinflusst die Form der Zelle und übernimmt Funktionenrnbei der Zellbewegung. Zellmembranen sind keine homogenen Strukturen, je nach Funktion sind unterschiedliche Lipide und Proteine in mikrsokopischen Domänen angereichert.Um die grundlegenden mechanischen Eigenschaften der Zellmembran zu verstehen wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit das Modellsystem der porenüberspannenden Membranen verwendet.Die Entwicklung der porenüberspannenden Membranen ermöglicht die Untersuchung von mechanischen Eigenschaften von Membranen im mikro- bis nanoskopischen Bereich mit rasterkraftmikroskopischen Methoden. Hierbei bestimmen Porosität und Porengröße des Substrates die räumliche Auflösung, mit welcher die mechanischen Parameter untersucht werdenrnkönnen. Porenüberspannende Lipiddoppelschichten und Zellmembranen auf neuartigen porösen Siliziumsubstraten mit Porenradien von 225 nm bis 600 nm und Porositäten bis zu 30% wurden untersucht. Es wird ein Weg zu einer umfassenden theoretischen Modellierung der lokalen Indentationsexperimente und der Bestimmung der dominierenden energetischen Beiträge in der Mechanik von porenüberspannenden Membranen aufgezeigt. Porenüberspannende Membranen zeigen eine linear ansteigende Kraft mit zunehmender Indentationstiefe. Durch Untersuchung verschiedener Oberflächen, Porengrößen und Membranen unterschiedlicher Zusammensetzung war es für freistehende Lipiddoppelschichten möglich, den Einfluss der Oberflächeneigenschaften und Geometrie des Substrates, sowie der Membranphase und des Lösungsmittels auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften zu bestimmen. Es ist möglich, die experimentellen Daten mit einem theoretischen Modell zu beschreiben. Hierbei werden Parameter wie die laterale Spannung und das Biegemodul der Membran bestimmt. In Abhängigkeit der Substrateigenschaften wurden für freitragende Lipiddoppelschichten laterale Spannungen von 150 μN/m bis zu 31 mN/m gefunden für Biegemodulde zwischen 10^(−19) J bis 10^(−18) J. Durch Kraft-Indentations-Experimente an porenüberspannenden Zellmembranen wurde ein Vergleich zwischen dem Modell der freistehenden Lipiddoppelschichten und nativen Membranen herbeigeführt. Die lateralen Spannungen für native freitragende Membranen wurden zu 50 μN/m bestimmt. Weiterhin konnte der Einfluss des Zytoskeletts und der extrazellulä-rnren Matrix auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften bestimmt und innerhalb eines basolateralen Zellmembranfragments kartiert werden, wobei die Periodizität und der Porendurchmesser des Substrates das räumliche Auflösungsvermögen bestimmen. Durch Fixierung der freistehenden Zellmembran wurde das Biegemodul der Membran um bis zu einem Faktor 10 erhöht. Diese Arbeit zeigt wie lokal aufgelöste, mechanische Eigenschaften mittels des Modellsystems der porenüberspannenden Membranen gemessen und quantifiziert werden können. Weiterhin werden die dominierenden energetischen Einflüsse diskutiert, und eine Vergleichbarkeit zurnnatürlichen Membranen hergestellt.rn

In-vitro synthesis and reconstitution of cytochrome bo 3 ubiquinol oxidase in artificial membranes

Forschung über Membranenproteine stellt strenge Hindernisse, seit ruhigem gerade wenige Beispiele der Membranenproteinsorten sind gekennzeichnet worden in den verwendbaren experimentellen Plattformen gegenüber. Die Hauptherausforderung ist, ihre ausgezeichnete entworfene strukturelle Vollständigkeit zu konservieren, während die Ausdruck-, Lokalisierungs- und Wiederherstellungprozesse auftreten. In-vitro übersetzungssysteme können Vorteile über auf Zellenbasisgenausdruck zum Beispiel haben, wenn das über-ausgedrückte Produkt zur Wirtszelle giftig ist oder wenn fehlende Pfosten-Übersetzungsänderung in den bakteriellen Ausdrucksystemen die Funktionalität der Säugetier- Proteine oder Mangel an vorhandenem Membranenraum verdirbt, Funktionsausdruck verbieten.rn Der Nachahmer von biologische Membranen wie feste gestützte Lipidmembranen sind als Plattform am meisten benutzt, Proteinmembraneninteraktionen nachzuforschen. Wir sind in der Lage, Membranenproteinsorte, da wir eine Plattform für Membranenproteinsynthese vorstellen, nämlich die in-vitrosynthese der Membranenproteine in ein Peptid gestütztes Membranensystem zu adressieren. Die Wiederherstellung der Membranenproteine in den Lipid bilayers resultiert im Allgemeinen mit verschiedenen Proteinanpassungen. Als Alternative erforschen wir dieses System zum ersten Mal, um genaueres Modell zu den zellularen Membranen zu verursachen und ihre Funktion, wie Proteineinfügung, Proteinfunktion und Ligandinteraktionen nachzuahmen.rn In dieser Arbeit ist unser Ziel, komplizierte Transmembraneproteine, wie des Cytochrome bo3-ubiquinol Oxydase (Cyt-bo3) direkt innerhalb der biomimetic vorbildlichen Membrane zu synthetisieren. In unserem System wird festes gestütztes tBLM wie, P19/DMPE/PC als Plattform benutzt. Dieses künstliche Membranensystem mimiks die amphiphile Architektur eines Zelle-abgeleiteten Membranensystems.rn

Biomimetic bilayer membranes made from polymers and lipids

Amphiphile Blockcopolymere sind in der Lage in Wasser Morphologien auszubilden, die analog sind zur hydrophil-hydrophob-hydrophil-Struktur von natürlichen Lipiddoppelschichten. In dieser Arbeit wird zum ersten Mal die Präparation und Charakterisierung von oberflächengestützten Polymerdoppelschichten aus Polybutadien-b-Polyethylenoxid (PB-PEO) beschrieben. Für die Herstellung dieser Strukturen wurden zwei unterschiedliche Präparationsstrategien verfolgt. Der erste Weg besteht aus einer zweistufigen Methode, bei der im ersten Schritt organisierte Monoschichten mittels Langmuir-Blodgett-Transfer auf Gold übertragen und kovalent angebunden werden. Im zweiten Schritt werden hydrophobe Wechselwirkungen ausgenutzt, um über Langmuir-Schaefer-Transfer eine weitere Schicht aufzubringen. Somit wurden homogene Architekturen erzeugt, die oberflächengestützten Lipiddoppelschichten gleichen. Als alternativer, einstufiger Ansatz zur Herstellung von Polymerdoppelschichten wurde das Spreiten von Polymervesikeln auf Gold verfolgt. Auch hierdurch ließen sich Doppelschichtstrukturen mit einer vollständigen Oberflächenbedeckung erzeugen. Die hergestellten Polymerdoppelschichten besitzen eine Dicke von 11-14 nm, die von der Präparationsmethode abhängt. Die Polymerstrukturen weisen bei Trocknung für 1.5 h eine Stabilität gegenüber Luft auf. Bei längeren Trocknungszeiten von ca. 12 h kommt es zu einer Reorganisation der Oberfläche. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass Wasser dazu notwendig ist die Strukturen auf lange Sicht zu stabilisieren. Um die Biokompatibilität der Polymerschichten nachzuweisen, wurden die Wechselwirkungen mit dem membranaktiven Peptid Polymyxin B und dem Transmembranprotein α-Haemolysin gezeigt. Mobilität ist ein wichtiger Faktor für die korrekte Funktion vieler Transmembranproteine. Um die laterale Diffusionsdynamik innerhalb der künstlichen Strukturen zu untersuchen, wurde die Mobilität eines integralen Modellpeptids und von fluoreszierenden Membransonden gemessen. Es konnte mit einzelmolekülempfindlichen Techniken gezeigt werden, dass das α-helikale Peptid und die kleinen Fluoreszenzfarbstoffe frei im hydrophoben Kern der Polymerdoppelschicht diffundieren können. Die Diffusion von beiden Spezies scheint stark von der Fluidität der Polymermatrix beeinflusst zu sein. Ein weiterer Teil dieser Arbeit widmet sich der Entwicklung eines angemessenen, lipidbasierten Referenzsystems für zukünftige Proteinuntersuchungen. Hierzu wurde eine neue Methode zu Herstellung von peptidgestützten Lipiddoppelschichtmembranen entwickelt. Dies wurde durch kovalente Befestigung eines Thiopeptids an einen Goldfilm und darauffolgende Anbindung eines Lipids erreicht. Zur Ausbildung der Lipiddoppelschicht auf dem Lipopeptidunterbau wurder der Rapid Solvent Exchange verwendet. Die Ausbildung der Lipiddoppelschicht wurde sowohl auf microskopischer als auch auf makroskopischer Ebene nachgewiesen. Im letzten Schritt wurde die Anwendbarkeit des Modelsystems für elektrochemische Messungen durch den funktionalen Einbau des Ionentransporters Valinomycin unter Beweis gestellt.

Electrostatic supramolecular assembly of charged dendritic polymers and their biological application

The aim of this study was the development of functional multilayer films through electrostatic layer by layer (LbL) assembly of dendritic macromolecules, the investigation of the fundamental properties of these multilalyered films and the study of their biological applications. rnThe synthesis of the anionic hyperbranched polyglycerols (hbPG) and the preparation of multilayers made of hbPG/phosphorus dendrimer as well as the influences of deposition conditions on multilayers were reported. The thicknesses of multilayer films increase with a decrease of molecular weight of anionic hbPGs. The multilayer films fabricated by low molecular weight hbPGs grow less regularly due to the less charged carboxylic acid groups providing the relative weaker electrostatic forces for the deposition. The thicknesses of multilayer films are reduced with increasing pH values and decreasing the concentration of NaCl. The observed changes of multilayer thickness and surface morphology could be interpreted with the aid of theories regarding the charge density and conformation of the anionic hbPG chains in solution. rnBesides the study of fundamental properties of hbPG/phosphorus multilayer films, antifouling thin films derived from hbPG layers were developed. The antifouling properties of hbPG layers were found to correlate with factors of the molecular weight of anionic hbPG and the film thickness. It was demonstrated that anionic hbPG single layer with highest molecular weight can reduce non specific protein adsorption more efficiently than single layer with lower molecular weight and all the hbPG bilayers possessed excellent property of antifouling. rnPhosphorus dendrimer multilayers were successfully prepared as the platforms to detect DNA immobilization and hybridization. The effect of NaCl concentration on the multilayer film thickness was evaluated to obtain the optimized film thickness. Making use of the multilayer deposited at the optimized condition as a substrate, a high loading of DNA probes was achieved through covalent coupling of probe DNA with the as-formed multilayer films. The hybridization of target DNA with immobilized probe DNA was then carried out and studied by SPFS. The limit of detection upon hybridization was estimated on various dendrimer multilayer platforms. The minimum detection concentration for DNA hybridization is in the same order of magnitude compared with other neutral phosphorus dendrimer systems. Furthermore, the LbL deposition of phosphorus dendrimer multilayers provided a mild and simple way to prepare platforms as DNA microarrays. rnBased on the phosphorus dendrimer multilayer systems, dendritic star polymers were employed which have more reactive groups than that phosphorus dendrimers. The as-assembled dendritic star polymer multilayer films exhibited such distinct morphology characteristics that they underwent extensive structural reorganization upon post-treatment under different pH conditions. Kinetic binding of probe DNA molecules on the outermost negatively charged dendritic surface was studied by SPR as well. The binding capacities of probe DNA on the multilayer surfaces fabricated from the first-generation and the second-generation of dendritic star polymers were compared. The improved binding capacity was achieved from the second-generation of dendritic star polymer multilayer films due to their more reactive groups. DNA hybridization reaction on dendritic multilayer films was investigated by SPFS. The similar hybridization behaviors were found on both multilayer surfaces. Meanwhile, the hybridization kinetic affinities were compared with that of phosphorus dendrimer multilayer surfaces and showed improved detection sensitivity than phosphorus dendrimer multilayer films.rn

Structure formation as studied by EPR spectroscopy: From simple solutions to nanoparticles

In this thesis, three nitroxide based ionic systems were used to investigate structure and dynamics of their respective solutions in mixed solvents by means of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy at X- and W-band (9.5 and 94.5 GHz, respectively). rnFirst, the solvation of the inorganic radical Fremy’s salt (K2ON(SO3)2) in isotope substituted binary solvent mixtures (methanol/water) was investigated by means of high-field (W-band) pulse ENDOR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. From the analysis of orientation-selective 1H and 2H ENDOR spectra the principal components of the hyperfine coupling (hfc) tensor for chemically different protons (alcoholic methyl vs. exchangeable protons) were obtained. The methyl protons of the organic solvent approach with a mean distance of 3.5 Å perpendicular to the approximate plane spanned by ON(S)2 of the probe molecule. Exchangeable protons were found to be distributed isotropically, approaching closest to Fremy’s salt from the hydrogen-bonded network around the sulfonate groups. The distribution of exchangeable and methyl protons as found in MD simulations is in full agreement with the ENDOR results. The solvation was found to be similar for the studied solvent ratios between 1:2.3 and 2.3:1 and dominated by an interplay of H-bond (electrostatic) interactions and steric considerations with the NO group merely involved into H-bonds.rnFurther, the conformation of spin labeled poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) solutions in aqueous alcohol (methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, ethylene glycol, glycerol) mixtures in dependence of divalent sodium sulfate was investigated with double electron-electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy. The DEER data was analyzed using the worm-like chain model which suggests that in organic-water solvent mixtures the polymer backbones are preferentially solvated by the organic solvent. We found a less serve impact on conformational changes due to salt than usually predicted in polyelectrolyte theory which stresses the importance of a delicate balance of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, in particular in the presence of organic solvents.rnFinally, the structure and dynamics of miniemulsions and polymerdispersions prepared with anionic surfactants, that were partially replaced by a spin labeled fatty acid in presence and absence of a lanthanide beta-diketonate complex was characterized by CW EPR spectroscopy. Such miniemulsions form multilayers with the surfactant head group bound to the lanthanide ion. Beta-diketonates were formerly used as NMR shift reagents and nowadays find application as luminescent materials in OLEDs and LCDs and as contrast agent in MRT. The embedding of the complex into a polymer matrix results in an easy processable material. It was found that the structure formation takes place in miniemulsion and is preserved during polymerization. For surfactants with carboxyl-head group a higher order of the alkyl chains and less lateral diffusion is found than for sulfat-head groups, suggesting a more uniform and stronger coordination to the metal ion. The stability of these bilayers depends on the temperature and the used surfactant which should be considered for the used polymerization temperature if a maximum output of the structured regions is wished.