J.A.D.E. jardín y arquitectura doméstica del este: (la casa contemporánea japonesa, el refugio y el jardín, Tokio: 1991-2011)

El capítulo 1 de esta tesis doctoral describe conceptos relativos a la ontología y a la arquitectura como, por ejemplo, la cuestión de “El lugar” o “Basho” o el espacio visto desde un punto de vista filosófico. En este capítulo se examinan las diferencias y similitudes entre la ideología oriental y la filosofía de occidente a lo largo de la historia y se esbozan los puntos comunes entre ambas en cuestiones que atañen al habitar. En el capítulo 2, estos conceptos se enumeran y ordenan y se extraen diferentes conclusiones en cuanto a la percepción de valores como el espacio o el vacío, fundamentales para entender la arquitectura y el paisaje en las culturas de Oriente y Occidente. El capítulo 3 describe el paisaje oriental y el jardín chino a modo de prólogo del de Japón. Este capítulo introduce al lector en la historia del jardín y explica las transformaciones que éste ha sufrido a lo largo de la historia de China. El capítulo 4 es una asimilación de los conceptos examinados en los capítulos 1,2 y 3 y en él se analizan los aspectos compositivos fundamentales del jardín chino y sus elementos como, por ejemplo, el centro, el límite, el agua o la montaña. El capítulo 5 consiste en una introducción al paisaje japonés que comienza con el estudio de su geografía, su lengua, su literatura y sus períodos históricos más importantes previos a la era moderna: la era primitiva “Jomon”, la era “Yayoi”, los tres Shogunatos y la Revolución Meiji. La segunda parte del capítulo 5 describe los jardines japoneses a lo largo de la historia tales como el jardín Karesansui, los jardines de Kioto o el arte del jardín Tatebana, entre otros. El capítulo 6 comienza con una copia del texto medieval japonés, “HOJOKI”. Al igual que en los capítulos 2 y 4, en el capítulo 6 se extraen los valores del capítulo anterior, esta vez, mediante un comentario de texto. En esencia, este libro demuestra la importancia de la “cabaña en la naturaleza” para la cultura japonesa, así como la relación del espacio doméstico y el jardín a lo largo de su historia. El capítulo 7 describe la evolución del paisaje de la ciudad china en paralelo a la evolución del paisaje urbano japonés que se desarrolla en el capítulo 9. El capítulo 8 es un nexo de unión entre los capítulos 7 y 9 puesto que explica las influencias paisajísticas y urbanas mutuas entre las culturas china y japonesa a lo largo de la historia como es el caso del trazado de las antiguas ciudades capitales chinas y japonesas o el de los paisajes y urbes proyectados sobre la topografía de Manchuria durante la ocupación japonesa de China. El capítulo 9 describe el paisaje japonés moderno, sus ciudades y sus paisajes interurbanos como, por ejemplo, el Tokai-do. A continuación describe la evolución de la arquitectura y el jardín japonés a lo largo del siglo XX, los principales movimientos de vanguardia, las circunstancias económicas que llevaron al país a la crisis de los 90 y la lenta recuperación económica posterior. Por último, este capítulo explica la destrucción del paisaje del norte tras El Gran Terremoto del Este del 2011 y su recuperación a corto plazo. El capítulo 10 se compone de tres entrevistas a tres figuras relevantes del mundo académico y de la arquitectura japonesa. Algunos de los temas que exponen son la arquitectura doméstica japonesa, el jardín y la naturaleza de esta cultura, la situación de la ciudad de Tokio o el rol del arquitecto en la sociedad contemporánea, entre otros. Además de estas cuestiones, se debate acerca de los recursos y la recuperación del país tras El Gran Terremoto del Este de Japón. Finalmente, el capítulo 11 consiste en un estudio en profundidad acerca del paisaje de la ciudad de Tokio y el espacio doméstico y el jardín en base a los conceptos estudiados en los capítulos 1 y 2 y en relación a los valores paisajísticos vistos en los capítulos 3,4,5 y 6, además de los temas urbanos y topográficos estudiados en los capítulos 7,8,9 y 10. En este capítulo se estudia la figura del sujeto individual y colectivo, el refugio, el jardín, las acciones urbanas del Machizukuri, el parque y la morfología y evolución de los barrios centrales de Tokio y sus espacios domésticos y parques y jardines vistos a través de los datos estadísticos proporcionados por el gobierno. Además, el texto estudia un total de 21 casos seleccionados y analizados a través de la comparación de cerca de 800 viviendas domésticas publicadas entre 1991 y 2011 en las revistas de gran prestigio nacional e internacional, Shinkenchiku Jutakutokushu y GA Houses. Tras el análisis de los casos de estudio, se extraen una serie de conclusiones y clasificaciones del jardín en el espacio doméstico del centro de Tokio en dicho periodo. Los últimos tres capítulos de la tesis doctoral se dividen en: una traducción al inglés del resumen y las conclusiones más importantes del capítulo 11 (capítulo 12) una conclusión y resumen homólogos en japonés (capítulo 13) y un cuaderno de dibujos a mano realizado por la autora sobre especies botánicas naturalizadas domésticas de la ciudad de Tokio (capítulo 14) ABSTRACT Chapter 1 of this Ph.D. thesis describes concepts related to ontology and architecture like the issue of “The place” in Japan, or “The space” as seen from a philosophic point of view. In this chapter, the differences between the essential ancient Asian ideology and the philosophical contemporary thought of the East are discussed, and at the same time the transcendental thought coming from the West is analysed and compared to both of them. In Chapter 2 these concepts are analysed specifically in the field of “inhabiting the domestic space” and the text fathoms the common points between Eastern and Western thought relating to the house and the garden. Chapter 3 describes the oriental landscape and garden of China as a prologue to that of Japan. This chapter starts with a brief description of the history of the garden in the East and the West and introduces the reader into the geography and changes that have taken place in China since the birth of its culture. Chapter 4 entails a brief assimilation of what has been deduced from chapters 1, 2 and 3. In this chapter the compositive and design aspects of the Chinese garden are described, aspects such as centre, limit, the element of the mountain, emptiness, water, and vision or the theatre. Chapter 5 is an introduction to the history of landscape and architecture in Japan that starts with a geographical insight into the country and with a short summary about the language, the primitive “Jomon” culture, the “Yayoi” era , the three Shogunates.and the Meiji Revolution. In the second part of chapter 5, the text describes Japanese gardens throughout history, for example the Karesansui garden, the history of Kyoto and its gardens, the garden in relationship with art and with Japanese literature or the art of Tatebana. Chapter 6 starts with a copy of the medieval text “HOJOKI” and discusses issues such as the meaning of “the hut in the nature” for Japanese culture and its relationship with the domestic space and the garden. Chapter 7 discusses the development of cities in the landscape in Chinese culture in parallel with an observation of the evolution of cities in Japanese culture and landscape. Chapter 8 is the crux of the Ph.D. research as it explains the mutual influences of landscape, urban planning, construction and architecture between Japan in China. Chapter 9 describes the Japanese urban planning since the very first urban developments and develops a study on the evolution of the Japanese cities and roads (like the Tokai-do) in the landscape. Also, it describes the reconstruction of the cities of Japan after the Second World War, the cultural vanguard movements, the economical circumstances that led to the Japan´ s economic crisis of the 90´s and the slow recovery of its economy. Also, at the end of this chapter, the text analyses the event of the Great East Japan Earthquake of 211. Chapter 10 of this Ph.D. research is composed of a number of interviews with architects and professors about architecture, nature in the domestic space, the role of the architect nowadays in addition to facts about energy and about the Great East Japan Earthquake . Finally, chapter 11 consists of a deep study concerning the current situation in the city of Tokyo and the relationship between its domestic spaces (dwellings) and gardens based on the philosophical values studied in chapters 1 and 2, aswell as the landscape values of the garden studied in chapters 3,4,5, and 6 plus the information about the cities in the landscape studied in chapters 7,8, 9 and 10. In this chapter the main goal is to study the human being, the refuge, the garden, the urban planning actions of Machizukuri, the park and the morphology and evolution of the central quarters of Tokyo and of its domestic spaces and parks seen through the statistical data provided by the Japanese government in the last decades. Also, the text provides a study on 21 cases selected and analysed through the comparison of around 800 domestic spaces designed in between 1991 and 2011 and published in “Shinkenchiku Jutakutokushu” and “GA Houses” magazines. After these study cases, a number of conclusions are developed and also a classification of the domestic garden in the center of Tokyo. The last three chapters of this Ph.D. work are divided in: the translation to English of the summary and main conclusions of chapter 11 of the research in Chapter 12, the translation to Japanese of the summary and main conclusions of chapter 11 of the research in Chapter 13, and a collection of hand-drawings done by the author about the botanical species found in the gardens of the domestic realms of Tokyo in Chapter 14.

Tendências e contratendências de mercantilização: as reformas dos sistemas de saúde alemão, francês e britânico

Ao longo dos últimos trinta anos, entre meados das décadas de 1980 e 2010, os sistemas de saúde da Alemanha, França e Reino Unido foram reformados, gerando uma crescente mercantilização no financiamento e na prestação de serviços. O trabalho analisa as raízes dessas mudanças, assim como identifica que a mercantilização não ocorreu nem mediante os mesmos mecanismos e nem com a mesma profundidade, havendo importante inércia institucional. As diferenças observadas atestam as especificidades de cada país, em termos de seu contexto econômico, de seus arranjos políticos, das características institucionais de cada sistema e das formas que assumiram os conflitos sociais (extra e intra sistema de saúde). Os sistemas de saúde alemão, francês e britânico, enquanto sistemas públicos de ampla cobertura e integralidade, são frutos do período após a Segunda Guerra Mundial. Um conjunto de fatores contribuiu para aquele momento histórico: os próprios impactos do conflito, que forjaram a ampliação na solidariedade nacional e a maior pressão por parte dos trabalhadores; a ascensão socialista na União Soviética; o maior apoio à ação e ao planejamento estatal; o forte crescimento econômico, fruto da emersão de um regime de acumulação fordista, pautado na expansão da produtividade. A acomodação do conflito capital-trabalho, neste contexto, ocorreu mediante a expansão dos salários reais e ao desenvolvimento do Estado de bem-estar social, ou seja, de políticas públicas voltadas à criação e/ou ampliação de uma rede de proteção social. No entanto, a crise econômica da década de 1970 corroeu a base de financiamento e gerou questionamentos sobre sua eficiência, em meio à transformação do regime de acumulação de fordista para financeirizado, levando à adoção de reformas constantes ao longo das décadas seguintes. Além disso, as transformações específicas do setor saúde complexificaram a situação, tendo em vista o crescente envelhecimento populacional, a demanda por cuidados mais amplos e complexos e, principalmente, os custos derivados da incorporação tecnológica. Este cenário impulsionou a implementação de uma série de alterações nesses sistemas de saúde, com destaque para a incorporação de mecanismos de mercado (como a precificação dos serviços prestados, a indução à concorrência entre prestadores de serviços), o crescimento da responsabilidade dos usuários pelo financiamento do sistema (como o aumento nos co-pagamentos e a redução na cobertura pública) e a ampliação da participação direta do setor privado na prestação dos serviços de saúde (realizando os serviços auxiliares, a gestão de hospitais públicos, comprando instituições estatais). No entanto, de forma simultânea, as reformas ampliaram o acesso e a regulamentação estatal, além da modificação na base de financiamento, principalmente na França. Isto significa que a mercantilização não foi o único direcionamento das reformas, em decorrência de dois fatores principais: a própria crise econômica expulsou parcela da população dos mecanismos pós-guerra de proteção à saúde, demandando reação estatal, e diferentes agentes sociais influenciaram nas mudanças, bloqueando ou ao menos limitando um direcionamento mercantil único.

Perspectivas sobre educación en valores en tiempos de crisis

En medio de la actual crisis económica mundial, todas las instituciones de la sociedad están afectadas por la crisis moral, de manera que existe una evidente y preocupante contradicción entre ellas. Esta crisis moral implica la carencia de valores personales y ciudadanos, que afectan, significativamente, al desarrollo del individuo y a la convivencia social. Tratamos de verificar si hay indicios de ello en la realidad escolar con relación a la axiología curricular y su desarrollo. Para analizar la situación de la enseñanza-aprendizaje de los valores en la educación española, hemos aplicado una encuesta a 1320 profesores de educación secundaria, con el fin de averiguar los objetivos, los tipos de valores y las habilidades personales y sociales, que desarrollan en el aula. La situación nos indica que son necesarios nuevos enfoques de educación en valores, que se adapten a estos tiempos. La formación axiológica debe estar incorporada en todos los ámbitos del conocimiento y ha de ir a la par que la formación de la inteligencia. El binomio actividad intelectual-actividad moral ha de formar un todo insociable. En esta propuesta, reflexionamos en torno a la aplicación de un nuevo paradigma axiológico que se separe del racionalismo mecanicista, y que se oriente a una educación personal holística, sistemática, interdisciplinaria y transversal a todo el currículo educativo.

La crisis del modelo actual. Los MOOC y la búsqueda de un modelo de negocio

La actual crisis económica ha tenido impacto en prácticamente todos los sectores socioeconómicos, entre los que se incluye la educación como uno de los grandes perjudicados. En este momento de incertidumbre sobre la viabilidad de la educación tradicional y la supuesta burbuja en la enseñanza (agravada por las tasas de paro juvenil), surgen los MOOC como respuesta a la necesidad de acercamiento entre la formación y la sociedad del conocimiento. Pero que los cursos masivos y abiertos marquen el futuro de la educación dependerá en gran medida de su viabilidad económica. Aunque aun no se haya encontrado un modelo de negocio definitivo, las plataformas de MOOC experimentan con diferentes alternativas que, unidas a la escalabilidad de los proyectos, es previsible que generen grandes resultados.

Relación entre crisis económica y salud: ¿lo relevante son las políticas de austeridad?

Discusión sobre: Tapia Granados JA. La crisis y la salud en España y en Europa: ¿Está aumentando la mortalidad? Salud Colectiva. 2014;10(1):81-91.

El impacto de la crisis económica sobre la movilidad internacional de los residentes extranjeros en la provincia de Alicante

Introducción: En este estudio se investigan los efectos de la crisis económica en los flujos migratorios internacionales. Específicamente, se realiza un análisis comparado sobre los comportamientos en la movilidad residencial de los principales grupos de residentes a partir de las Estadísticas de Variaciones Residenciales (EVR) de 2005 a 2010 en Alicante. Método: Se analizan los microdatos de las EVR para comparar las entradas y salidas de inmigrantes procedentes de los países que aglutinan a las personas que se trasladan orientadas por motivos más cercanos a la esfera del ocio que a la del trabajo, con el grupo de nacionalidades que concentra a la mayoría de los inmigrantes laborales que llegaron atraídos por las ofertas de empleo generadas con la expansión del sector inmobiliario. Resultados: Entre los años 2007 y 2009 se redujeron mucho las variaciones residenciales de entrada en la provincia Alicante desde el extranjero, mientras que se incrementaron las variaciones relacionadas con las salidas. Aunque existen diferencias en el balance de entradas y salidas según la zona de la provincia, la nacionalidad y la edad de los migrantes, la crisis parece asociarse con una tendencia a la reducción del número de residentes extranjeros en general. Discusión o Conclusión: Se concluye que la crisis no sólo ha generado un éxodo de los ciudadanos con menos recursos económicos, también ha provocado la salida masiva de aquellos otros inmigrantes cuya presencia en España se asocia con el consumo.

Reacciones comunitarias a la crisis económica y social en España

Introducción. En un contexto de incremento de las desigualdades y de la pobreza en la sociedad española, donde el desmantelamiento del Estado de Bienestar reduce la posibilidad de encontrar recursos e implementar políticas públicas de reducción de estos efectos; la Sociedad Civil y la ciudadanía desarrollan prácticas resilientes orientadas a satisfacer las necesidades de las comunidades más afectadas por el desempleo y el recorte de servicios sociales. Material y métodos. a) Datos secundarios estadísticos procedentes de organismos y fundaciones; y webs de organizaciones resilientes; b) datos primarios producidos a partir de entrevistas y grupos de discusión. Metodología de análisis de contenido y análisis de discurso. Resultados y discusión. las prácticas resilientes como satisfactores de necesidades, son estructuradas a partir de dos dimensiones adaptación/transformación; dependencia/autonomía. Se observa que estas prácticas cuanto más abstracción presentan (de las necesidades concretas relacionadas con la subsistencia, a las necesidades más intangibles relacionadas con cuestiones simbólicas e identitarias), mayor complejidad en su diseño y organización, y mayor potencia como satisfactor.

Challenges in Lifestyle Migration Research: Reflections and Findings about the Spanish Crisis

The lifestyle migration conceptual framework is based on the motivation for moving reported by the migrants themselves. We discuss the operability of this approach, which is built on the subjective assessments of individuals. It diminishes the actual importance of economic factors and has an underlying ideological element associated with the categorisation of people according to their nationality. A comparative analysis of residential variations by nationalities between 2005 and 2010 in Alicante (Spain) shows that, when faced with the economic crisis, the so-called lifestyle migrants are changing their mobility patterns in a way similar to the rest of the migrants. This calls into question the adequacy of juxtaposing lifestyle and labour migration. Both theory and research show that this duality, instead of clarifying applied research, makes it more difficult. We argue that the lifestyle migration framework is inadequate to study changes in mobility patterns, particularly when using a quantitative approach.

From the boom to the crisis: changes in employment conditions of immigrants in Spain and their effects on mental health

Background: Migrant workers have been one of the groups most affected by the economic crisis. This study evaluates the influence of changes in employment conditions on the incidence of poor mental health of immigrant workers in Spain, after a period of 3 years, in context of economic crisis. Methods: Follow-up survey was conducted at two time points, 2008 and 2011, with a reference population of 318 workers from Colombia, Ecuador, Morocco and Romania residing in Spain. Individuals from this population who reported good mental health in the 2008 survey (n = 214) were interviewed again in 2011 to evaluate their mental health status and the effects of their different employment situations since 2008 by calculating crude and adjusted odds ratios (aORs) for sociodemographic and employment characteristics. Findings: There was an increased risk of poor mental health in workers who lost their jobs (aOR = 3.62, 95%CI: 1.64–7.96), whose number of working hours increased (aOR = 2.35, 95%CI: 1.02–5.44), whose monthly income decreased (aOR = 2.75, 95%CI: 1.08–7.00) or who remained within the low-income bracket. This was also the case for people whose legal status (permission for working and residing in Spain) was temporary or permanent compared with those with Spanish nationality (aOR = 3.32, 95%CI: 1.15–9.58) or illegal (aOR = 17.34, 95%CI: 1.96–153.23). In contrast, a decreased risk was observed among those who attained their registration under Spanish Social Security system (aOR = 0.10, 95%CI: 0.02–0.48). Conclusion: There was an increase in poor mental health among immigrant workers who experienced deterioration in their employment conditions, probably influenced by the economic crisis.

A qualitative exploration of the impact of the economic recession in Spain on working, living and health conditions: reflections based on immigrant workers' experiences

Background: This study aimed to analyse how immigrant workers in Spain experienced changes in their working and employment conditions brought about Spain's economic recession and the impact of these changes on their living conditions and health status. Method: We conducted a grounded theory study. Data were obtained through six focus group discussions with immigrant workers (n = 44) from Colombia, Ecuador and Morocco, and two individual interviews with key informants from Romania living in Spain, selected by theoretical sample. Results: Three categories related to the crisis emerged – previous labour experiences, employment consequences and individual consequences – that show how immigrant workers in Spain (i) understand the change in employment and working conditions conditioned by their experiences in the period prior to the crisis, and (ii) experienced the deterioration in their quality of life and health as consequences of the worsening of employment and working conditions during times of economic recession. Conclusion: The negative impact of the financial crisis on immigrant workers may increase their social vulnerability, potentially leading to the failure of their migratory project and a return to their home countries. Policy makers should take measures to minimize the negative impact of economic crisis on the occupational health of migrant workers in order to strengthen social protection and promote health and well-being.

Structures, Systems and Organizational Communication Processes in Franchises in times of crisis: the Spanish case

Current economic crisis together with the Internet revolution has had direct impacts on the franchise sector of Spain: in particular on its unique communication network. The aim of this research is to analyse how Spanish franchise companies have adapted to these changes through its corporate communications management. We want to determine whether the management of communications is ideal to the growth and consolidation of companies in the market. Corporate communications plans and organizational structures were analyzed to verify whether or not information technology (i.e. the use of the Internet) is maximized: the communications aspect being a critical area of company growth. We found that most franchise companies surveyed had adapted well to the changes in information technology, despite economic challenges. The Internet as a communications tool has been limited to its utility as a “bulletin board” for information. The marketing advantage of Internet communication, or its use as an avenue for customer exchange and exchange of goods and services has yet to be maximized. Future research may look into the details of how companies are able to maximize the communications-marketing advantage that Online/Internet can contribute to the franchise sector.

Economic crises and tourism competitiveness: A Markov swtiching regression approach

Authors discuss the effects that economic crises generate on the global market shares of tourism destinations, through a series of potential transmission mechanisms based on the main economic competitiveness determinants identified in the previous literature using a non-linear approach. Specifically a Markov Switching Regression approach is used to estimate the effect of two basic transmission mechanisms: reductions of internal and external tourism demands and falling investment.

Trends and Disparities in Mortality Among Spanish-Born and Foreign-Born Populations Residing in Spain, 1999–2008

Spain’s immigrant population has increased 380 % in the last decade, accounting for 13.1 % of the total population. This fact has led her to become during 2009 the eighth recipient country of international immigrants in the world. The aim of this article is to describe the evolution of mortality and the main causes of death among the Spanish-born and foreign-born populations residing in Spain between 1999 and 2008. Age-standardised mortality rates (ASRs), average age and comparative mortality ratios among foreign-born and Spanish-born populations residing in Spain were computed for every year and sub-period by sex, cause of death and place of birth as well as by the ASR percentage change. During 1999–2008 the ASR showed a progressive decrease in the risk of death in the Spanish-born population (−17.8 % for men and −16.6 % for women) as well as in the foreign-born one (−45.9 % for men and −35.7 % for women). ASR also showed a progressive decrease for practically all the causes of death, in both populations. It has been observed that the risk of death due to neoplasms and respiratory diseases among immigrants is lower than that of their Spanish-born counterparts, but risk due to external causes is higher. Places of birth with the greater decreases are Northern Europe, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Southern Europe, and Latin America and the Caribbean. The research shows the differences in the reduction of death risk between Spanish-born and immigrant inhabitants between 1999 and 2008. These results could contribute to the ability of central and local governments to create effective health policy. Further research is necessary to examine changes in mortality trends among immigrant populations as a consequence of the economic crisis and the reforms in the Spanish health system. Spanish data sources should incorporate into their records information that enables them to find out the immigrant duration of permanence and the possible impact of this on mortality indicators.

Effect of economic recession on psychosocial working conditions by workers' nationality

Background: Several publications have documented the effects of economic recessions on health. However, little is known about how economic recessions influence working conditions, especially among vulnerable workers. Objective: To explore the effects of 2008 economic crisis on the prevalence of adverse psychosocial working conditions among Spanish and foreign national workers. Methods: Data come from the 2007 and 2011 Spanish Working Conditions Surveys. Survey year, sociodemographic, and occupational information were independent variables and psychosocial factors exposures were dependent variables. Analyses were stratified by nationality (Spanish versus foreign). Prevalence and adjusted prevalence ratios (aPRs) of psychological job demands, job control, job social support, physical demands and perceived job insecurity were estimated using Poisson regression. Results: The Spanish population had higher risk of psychological and physical job demand (aPR = 1.07, 95% CI = [1.04–1.10] and aPR = 1.05, 95% CI = [1.01–1.09], respectively) in 2011 compared to 2007. Among both Spanish and foreign national workers, greater aPR were found for job loss in 2011 compared to 2007 (aPR = 2.47, 95% CI = [2.34–2.60]; aPR = 2.44, 95% CI = [2.15–2.77], respectively). Conclusion: The 2008 economic crisis was associated with a significant increase in physical demands in Spanish workers and increased job insecurity for both Spanish and foreign workers.

The effects of economic crises on tourism success: an integrated model

This paper provides a theoretical model of the influence of economic crises on tourism destination performance. It discusses the temporary and permanent effects of economic crises on the global market shares of tourism destinations through a series of potential transmission mechanisms based on the main economic competitiveness determinants identified in the literature. The proposed model explains the non-neutrality of economic shocks in tourism competitiveness. The model is tested on Spain's tourism industry, which is among the leaders of the global tourism sector, for the period 1970–2013 using non-linear econometric techniques. The empirical analysis confirms that the proposed model is appropriate for explaining the changes in the market positions caused by the economic crises.