Sustainable freight: impacts of the London congestion charge and low emissions zone

This paper assesses whether two sustainability policies currently in effect in London, a congestion charge zone and a low emission zone, have affected freight operations and reduced vehicle kilometers travelled. It investigates responses by freight operators, including re-timing, re-routing, or reducing the number of trips, or replacing vehicles. Freight traffic trends from 1994 to 2012 were identified using road traffic estimates, cordon counts, and vehicle speed data and supplemented by interviews with freight industry experts and operators. Findings indicate that freight traffic increased throughout London during this timeframe, but declined in the central boroughs partly within the congestion charge zone. The congestion charge may have time-shifted some light goods trips, but most freight trips face a variety of constraints on operators’ delivery window. No evidence was found of re-routing of freight traffic or avoidance traffic around the charged zone. The low emission zone spurred higher levels of operational change than the congestion charge zone, and it was effective at spurring freight vehicle replacement. The paper also discusses freight operators’ perceptions of these policies and how they could be improved.

Low work-function thermionic emission and orbital-motion-limited ion collection at bare-tether cathodic contact

With a thin coating of low-work-function material, thermionic emission in the cathodic segment of bare tethers might be much greater than orbital-motion-limited (OML) ion collection current. The space charge of the emitted electrons decreases the electric field that accelerates them outwards, and could even reverse it for high enough emission, producing a potential hollow. In this work, at the conditions of high bias and relatively low emission that make the potential monotonic, an asymptotic analysis is carried out, extending the OML ion-collection analysis to investigate the probe response due to electrons emitted by the negatively biased cylindrical probe. At given emission, the space charge effect from emitted electrons increases with decreasing magnitude of negative probe bias. Although emitted electrons present negligible space charge far away from the probe, their effect cannot be neglected in the global analysis for the sheath structure and two thin layers in between sheath and the quasineutral region. The space-charge-limited condition is located. It is found that thermionic emission increases the range of probe radius for OML validity and is greatly more effective than ion collection for cathodic contact of tethers.

Combustion rumble prediction with integrated computational-fluid-dynamics/ low-order-model methods

The pressure oscillation within combustion chambers of aeroengines and industrial gas turbines is a major technical challenge to the development of high-performance and low-emission propulsion systems. In this paper, an approach integrating computational fluid dynamics and one-dimensional linear stability analysis is developed to predict the modes of oscillation in a combustor and their frequencies and growth rates. Linear acoustic theory was used to describe the acoustic waves propagating upstream and downstream of the combustion zone, which enables the computational fluid dynamics calculation to be efficiently concentrated on the combustion zone. A combustion oscillation was found to occur with its predicted frequency in agreement with experimental measurements. Furthermore, results from the computational fluid dynamics calculation provide the flame transfer function to describe unsteady heat release rate. Departures from ideal one-dimensional flows are described by shape factors. Combined with this information, low-order models can work out the possible oscillation modes and their initial growth rates. The approach developed here can be used in more general situations for the analysis of combustion oscillations. Copyright © 2012 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.

Gasoline fuelled partially premixed compression ignition in a light duty multi cylinder engine: A study of low load and low speed operation

The objective of this study was to examine the operating characteristics of a light duty multi cylinder compression ignition engine with regular gasoline fuel at low engine speed and load. The effects of fuel stratification by means of multiple injections as well as the sensitivity of auto-ignition and burn rate to intake pressure and temperature are presented. The measurements used in this study included gaseous emissions, filter smoke opacity and in-cylinder indicated information. It was found that stable, low emission operation was possible with raised intake manifold pressure and temperature, and that fuel stratification can lead to an increase in stability and a reduced reliance on increased temperature and pressure. It was also found that the auto-ignition delay sensitivity of gasoline to intake temperature and pressure was low within the operating window considered in this study. Nevertheless, the requirement for an increase of pressure, temperature and stratification in order to achieve auto-ignition time scales small enough for combustion in the engine was clear, using pump gasoline. Copyright © 2009 SAE International.

Distribuição por tamanhos do aerosol atmosférico na Península Ibérica

Um dos principais fatores que afetam negativamente a qualidade do ambiente em muitas cidades em todo o mundo é o material particulado (PM). A sua presença na atmosfera pode ter impactos negativos na saúde humana, clima, património edificado e ecossistemas. Muitos dos estudos realizados em áreas urbanas focam apenas as frações respiráveis (PM10 e PM2,5). No entanto, os processos de formação, a identificação das fontes emissoras e os efeitos dependem muito da distribuição granulométrica das partículas. A atenção tem recaído na análise de hidrocarbonetos poliaromáticos (PAHs), devida à sua carcinogenicidade e a informação disponível sobre outros compostos é escassa. O presente estudo consistiu na obtenção do PM distribuído por diferentes frações de tamanho e na análise detalhada da sua composição química, em dois locais urbanos da Península Ibérica (Madrid e Lisboa). Dado que os veículos representam uma das principais fontes emissoras em ambientes urbanos, efetuou-se uma caracterização mais detalhada deste tipo de emissões, conduzindo uma campanha de amostragem num túnel rodoviário (Marquês de Pombal, Lisboa). As amostragens, em ambas as cidades, decorreram durante um mês, quer no verão quer no inverno, em dois locais urbanos distintos, um junto a uma via com influência de tráfego e outro numa área urbana de fundo. No túnel a amostragem foi realizada apenas durante uma semana. Em Madrid e no túnel, o PM foi recolhido utilizando um amostrador de elevado volume com impactor em cascata com quatro tamanhos: 10-2,5, 2,5-0,95, 0,95-0,49 e < 0,49 μm. Em Lisboa, foi utilizado um impactor em cascata com apenas dois tamanhos, 10- 2,5 e < 2,5 μm. As amostras foram quimicamente analisadas e determinadas as concentrações de compostos carbonados (OC, EC e carbonatos), iões inorgânicos solúveis em água (Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, Na+, NH4+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+),metais e compostos orgânicos. Em Madrid, as concentrações médias de PM10 foram 44 e 48% maiores nas amostras recolhidas junto à estrada do que as de fundo urbano no verão e inverno, respetivamente. A fração grosseira e o PM0,5 apresentaram concentrações mais elevadas no verão do que no inverno devido às condições climatéricas pouco usuais. No verão, as amostragens decorreram num mês em que as temperaturas foram muito elevadas e em que ocorreram vários episódios de intrusão de poeira africana. Durante o período de amostragem de inverno, as temperaturas foram muito baixas e registaram-se vários dias de precipitação quer sob a forma de chuva, quer sob a forma de neve. As situações meteorológicas sinóticas mais comuns, incluindo aquelas que causam o transporte de massas de ar com poeiras Africanas, foram identificadas em ambas as estações do ano. As concentrações mássicas de PM10, EC e OC foram encontrados predominantemente na fração de tamanho ultrafino em ambos os locais de amostragem e estações do ano. Nas restantes frações não se observou nenhuma tendência sazonal. O carbono orgânico secundário (SOC) mostrou um claro padrão sazonal, com concentrações muito mais elevadas no verão do que no inverno, em ambos os lugares. A partir do balanço mássico de iões, observou-se que, no verão, a formação de compostos inorgânicos secundários (SIC) conduziu a um enriquecimento pouco comum de Ca2+ na fração submicrométrica, quer nas amostras de tráfego, quer em fundo urbano. Os alcanos, PAHs, os álcoois e os ácidos foram as classes de compostos orgânicos identificados e quantificados no material particulado. Globalmente, representaram 0,26 e 0,11 μg m−3 no verão e inverno, respetivamente, no local de tráfego e 0,28 e 0,035 μg m−3 na área urbana de fundo. Os diferentes compostos orgânicos também apresentaram padrões sazonais, sugerindo fontes de emissão (e.g. escapes dos veículos e fontes biogénicas) ou processos de formação com contribuições variáveis ao longo do ano. As concentrações de benzoapireno equivalente foram menores que 1 ng m-3 e o risco carcinogénico estimado é baixo. No verão, os maiores enriquecimentos de metais ocorreram na fração submicrométrica, e no inverno na fração grosseira. No verão, os enriquecimentos foram ≥ 80% para o Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Sb e Co, no inverno, estes traçadores de emissões do tráfego foram menores, exceto para o Zn. Em Lisboa, a concentração média de PM10 foi de 48 μg m-3 no verão e de 44 μg m-3 no inverno, junto à estrada. Na área de fundo urbano, registaram-se níveis comparáveis nas duas estações (27 μg m-3 e 26 μg m-3). A média do rácio PM2,5/PM10 foi de 65% no verão e 44% no inverno na área de tráfego e 62% e 59% na área urbana de fundo. Estes resultados significam que o PM2,5 é um dos principais contaminantes que afetam a qualidade do ar no centro da cidade de Lisboa. A relação OC/EC, que reflete a composição das emissões de combustão dos veículos, variou entre 0,3 e 0,4 no interior do túnel. Os rácios de OC/EC mínimos obtidos junto às vias de tráfego em Madrid e em Lisboa encontram-se entre os do túnel e os registados em atmosferas urbanas de fundo, sugerindo que os valores mínimos habitualmente obtidos para este parâmetro em ambientes urbanos abertos sobrestimam as emissões diretas de OC pelo transporte rodoviário. Espera-se que os resultados deste trabalho contribuam para suprir, pelo menos em parte, as lacunas de informação quer sobre a composição de várias granulometrias de PM, quer sobre fontes e processos de formação em atmosferas urbanas. Como a exposição a poluentes do ar ultrapassa o controle dos indivíduos e exige ação das autoridades públicas a nível nacional, regional e até mesmo internacional, é importante propor medidas mitigadoras focadas nas principais fontes de emissão identificadas.

Pathways to Low Carbon Transport in the EU – From Possibility to Reality. Report of the CEPS Task Force on transport and climate change. CEPS Task Force Report, June 2013

A new CEPS Task Force Report has identified possible pathways for achieving the EU’s ambitious climate change targets. It concludes that a GHG emissions reduction in line with EU climate change policy is possible, but it requires immediate action. This report argues that most of the reductions required of the transport sector in the EU could come from more energy-efficient vehicles, combined with the gradual introduction of low-carbon fuels and new engine technologies. The key policy for reducing GHG emissions in road transport is the steady tightening of emissions standards in line with technological progress. The report also identifies strategies for the transport system to become more energy and/or carbon efficient, arguing that leverage can be further enhanced by local and city governments’ incentives for efficient and low-carbon vehicles in line with local circumstances and choices. The Task Force on Low Carbon Transport brought together a diverse set of stakeholders from the car and oil industries, business associations, international organisations, member states, academic experts and NGOs. This authoritative report is the result of that unique collaboration.

Essays on Environmental and Health Economics

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Public acceptance of carbon dioxide capture and storage in a proposed demonstration area

With the rising levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, low-emission technologies with carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) provide one option for transforming the global energy infrastructure into a more environmentally, climate sustainable system. However, like many technology innovations, there is a social risk to the acceptance of CCS. This article presents the findings of an engagement process using facilitated workshops conducted in two communities in rural Queensland, Australia, where a demonstration project for IGCC with CCS has been announced. The findings demonstrate that workshop participants were concerned about climate change and wanted leadership from government and industry to address the issue. After the workshops, participants reported increased knowledge and more positive attitudes towards CCS, expressing support for the demonstration project to continue in their local area. The process developed is one that could be utilized around the world to successfully engage communities on the low carbon emission technology options.

Estimating indoor air quality using integrated 3D CAD building models

The indoor air quality (IAQ) in buildings is currently assessed by measurement of pollutants during building operation for comparison with air quality standards. Current practice at the design stage tries to minimise potential indoor air quality impacts of new building materials and contents by selecting low-emission materials. However low-emission materials are not always available, and even when used the aggregated pollutant concentrations from such materials are generally overlooked. This paper presents an innovative tool for estimating indoor air pollutant concentrations at the design stage, based on emissions over time from large area building materials, furniture and office equipment. The estimator considers volatile organic compounds, formaldehyde and airborne particles from indoor materials and office equipment and the contribution of outdoor urban air pollutants affected by urban location and ventilation system filtration. The estimated pollutants are for a single, fully mixed and ventilated zone in an office building with acceptable levels derived from Australian and international health-based standards. The model acquires its dimensional data for the indoor spaces from a 3D CAD model via IFC files and the emission data from a building products/contents emissions database. This paper describes the underlying approach to estimating indoor air quality and discusses the benefits of such an approach for designers and the occupants of buildings.

Three theories and a process: engaging community

This study examines a dialogue process managers can use to explore community attitudes. The objectives of the research are to develop a dialogue process that engages community audiences on climate mitigation strategies. Secondly, to understand participants perspectives and potential reactions in particular to underground storage of CO2 and determine the strategies that most effectively engage people in dialogue to enable the climate change debate to move forward. Finally, to develop a dialogue process that can be used by managers on other politically sensitive topics. Knowledge of the dynamics of psychosocial relationships and communication between stakeholders contributed to increased understanding of the issues. The key findings of this study indicate that the public can be engaged in dialogue on the issue of CO2 capture and storage and low emission technologies without engendering adverse reactions. The dialogue process is critical to participant’s engagement and led to behaviour change in energy use.

The Citizen’s Round Table process : canvassing public opinion on energy technologies to mitigate climate change

This study draws on communication accommodation theory, social identity theory and cognitive dissonance theory to drive a ‘Citizen’s Round Table’ process that engages community audiences on energy technologies and strategies that potentially mitigate climate change. The study examines the effectiveness of the process in determining the strategies that engage people in discussion. The process is designed to canvas participants’ perspectives and potential reactions to the array of renewable and non-renewable energy sources, in particular, underground storage of CO2. Ninety-five people (12 groups) participated in the process. Questionnaires were administered three times to identify changes in attitudes over time, and analysis of video, audio-transcripts and observer notes enabled an evaluation of level of engagement and communication among participants. The key findings of this study indicate that the public can be meaningfully engaged in discussion on the politically sensitive issue of CO2 capture and storage (CCS) and other low emission technologies. The round table process was critical to participants’ engagement and led to attitude change towards some methods of energy production. This study identifies a process that can be used successfully to explore community attitudes on politically-sensitive topics and encourages an examination of attitudes and potential attitude change.

New labour and the environment : too little too late.

New Labour and the environment: too little too late – symbolic success but real failure Achievements: Introduction of the Climate Change Act 2008, Low Carbon Transition Plan, the creation of the Department of Energy and Climate Change, establishment of several ‘green’ quangos and Green Investment Bank, Warm Front Scheme, international leadership on Kyoto and the European Directive for Landfill and Renewable Energy. Disappointments: Increased green house gas emissions that failto meet domestic UK targets, let alone Kyoto; significant increasesin energy and transport emissions; EU air pollution violations; failure to regulate the importation of illegally logged timber and wildlife; increase in chemical agriculture; unwillingness to tackle corporate environmental crime; road expansions and runway projects at the expense of low emission alternative public transport. Biggest broken promises: Global warming, low carbon transport; protection of biodiversity.

Atomic Layer Deposition of Electroluminescent ZnS, SrS, and BaS Thin Films

The light emitted by flat panel displays (FPD) can be generated in many different ways, such as for example alternating current thin film electroluminescence (ACTFEL), liquid crystal display (LCD), light emitting diode (LED), or plasma display panel (PDP) technologies. In this work, the focus was on ACTFEL devices and the goal was to develop new thin film processes for light emitting materials in ACTFEL devices. The films were deposited with the atomic layer deposition (ALD) method, which has been utilized in the manufacturing of ACTFEL displays since the mid-1980s. The ALD method is based on surface-controlled self-terminated reactions and a maximum of one layer of the desired material can be prepared during one deposition cycle. Therefore, the film thickness can be controlled simply by adjusting the number of deposition cycles. In addition, both large areas and deep trench structures can be covered uniformly. During this work, new ALD processes were developed for the following thin film materials: BaS, CuxS, MnS, PbS, SrS, SrSe, SrTe, SrS1-xSex, ZnS, and ZnS1-xSex. In addition, several ACTFEL devices were prepared where the light emitting material was BaS, SrS, SrS1-xSex, ZnS, or ZnS1-xSex thin film that was doped with Ce, Cu, Eu, Mn, or Pb. The sulfoselenide films were made by substituting the elemental selenium for sulfur on the substrate surface during film deposition. In this way, it was possible to replace a maximum of 90% of the sulfur with selenium, and the XRD analyses indicated that the films were solid solutions. The polycrystalline BaS, SrS, and ZnS thin films were deposited at 180-400, 120-460, and 280-500 °C, respectively, and the processes had a wide temperature range where the growth rate of the films was independent of the deposition temperature. The electroluminescence studies showed that the doped sulfoselenide films resulted in low emission intensity. However, the emission intensities and emission colors of the doped SrS, BaS, and ZnS films were comparable with those found in earlier studies. It was also shown that the electro-optical properties of the different ZnS:Mn devices were different as a consequence of different ZnS:Mn processes. Finally, it was concluded that because the higher deposition temperature seemed to result in a higher emission intensity, the thermal stability of the reactants has a significant role when the light emitting materials of ACTFEL devices are deposited with the ALD method.

Soybean rotation and crop residue management to reduce nitrous oxide emissions from sugarcane soils

NITROUS OXIDE (N2O) IS a potent greenhouse gas and the predominant ozone-depleting substance in the atmosphere. Agricultural nitrogenous fertiliser use is the major source of human-induced N2O emissions. A field experiment was conducted at Bundaberg from October 2012 to September 2014 to examine the impacts of legume crop (soybean) rotation as an alternative nitrogen (N) source on N2O emissions during the fallow period and to investigate low-emission soybean residue management practices. An automatic monitoring system and manual gas sampling chambers were used to measure greenhouse gas emissions from soil. Soybean cropping during the fallow period reduced N2O emissions compared to the bare fallow. Based on the N content in the soybean crop residues, the fertiliser N application rate was reduced by about 120 kg N/ha for the subsequent sugarcane crop. Consequently, emissions of N2O during the sugarcane cropping season were significantly lower from the soybean cropped soil than those from the conventionally fertilised (145 kg N/ha) soil following bare fallow. However, tillage that incorporated the soybean crop residues into soil promoted N2O emissions in the first two months. Spraying a nitrification inhibitor (DMPP) onto the soybean crop residues before tillage effectively prevented the N2O emission spikes. Compared to conventional tillage, practising no-till with or without growing a nitrogen catch crop during the time after soybean harvest and before cane planting also reduced N2O emissions substantially. These results demonstrated that soybean rotation during the fallow period followed with N conservation management practices could offer a promising N2O mitigation strategy in sugarcane farming. Further investigation is required to provide guidance on N and water management following soybean fallow to maintain sugar productivity.

Interfuel substitution in Australia: A way forward to achieve environmental sustainability

This paper examines the possibilities for interfuel substitution in Australia in view of the need to shift towards a cleaner mix of fuels and technologies to meet future energy demand and environmental goals. The translog cost function is estimated for the aggregate economy, the manufacturing sector and its subsectors, and the electricity generation subsector. The advantages of this work over previous literature relating to the Australian case are that it uses relatively recent data, focuses on energy-intensive subsectors and estimates the Morishima elasticities of substitution. The empirical evidence shown herein indicates weak-form substitutability between different energy types, and higher possibilities for substitution at lower levels of aggregation, compared with the aggregate economy. For the electricity generation subsector, which is at the centre of the CO2 emissions problem in Australia, significant but weak substitutability exists between coal and gas when the price of coal changes. A higher substitution possibility exists between coal and oil in this subsector. The evidence for the own- and cross-price elasticities, together with the results for fuel efficiencies, indicates that a large increase in relative prices could be justified to further stimulate the market for low-emission technologies.