Fusion or non fusion of coral fragments in Acropora

Corals inhabit high energy environments where frequent disturbances result in physical damage to coralla, including fragmentation, as well as generating and mobilizing large sediment clasts. The branching growth form common in the Acropora genus makes it particularly susceptible to such disturbances and therefore useful for study of the fate of large sediment clasts. Living Acropora samples with natural, extraneous, broken coral branches incorporated on their living surface and dead Acropora skeletons containing embedded clasts of isolated branch sections of Acropora were observed and/or collected from the reef flat of Heron Reef, southern Great Barrier Reef and Bargara, Australia respectively. Here we report three different outcomes when pebble-sized coral branches became lodged on living coral colonies during sedimentation events in natural settings in Acropora: 1) Where live coral branches produced during a disturbance event come to rest on probable genetic clone-mate colonies they become rapidly stabilised leading to complete soft tissue and skeletal fusion; 2) Where the branch and underlying colony are not clone-mates, but may still be the same or similar species, the branches still may be stabilised rapidly by soft tissue, but then one species will overgrow the other; and 3) Where branches represent dead skeletal debris, they are treated like any foreign clast and are surrounded by clypeotheca and incorporated into the corallum by overgrowth. The retention of branch fragments on colonies in high energy reef flat settings may suggest an active role of coral polyps to recognise and fuse with each other. Also, in all cases the healing of disturbed tissue and subsequent skeletal growth is an adaptation important for protecting colonies from invasion by parasites and other benthos following disturbance events and may also serve to increase corallum strength. Knowledge of such adaptations is important in studies of coral behaviour during periods of environmental stress.

Indigofera linnaei-a problem legume across northern pastures

Indigofera linnaei (or Birdsville Indigo) is a native legume with widespread abundance in pastures across northern Australian, and occurs in all northern regions of Australia from the tropical Kimberleys and arid central Australia to subhumid coastal Queensland (Figure 1). I. linnaei in central Australia has been linked to canine fatalities due to the toxin indospicine. Indospicine, an analog of arginine, is an unusual non-protein amino acid found only in a number of Indigofera species including I. linnaei. Dogs are particularly sensitive to the heptatoxicity of indospicine, and while they do not themselves consume the plant, dogs have been poisoned indirectly through the consumption of indospicine-contaminated meat from horses and camels grazing in regions where I. linnaei is common (Hegarty and Pound 1988, FitzGerald et al 2011). I. linnaei is observed to occur in various forms from strongly prostrate in south-east Queensland to an erect shrub-like form growing to more than 50cm in height in some northern regions. It mostly occurs as a minor proportion of native pasture but denser stands develop under certain circumstances. The indospicine content of I. linnaei has not previously been reported outside of central Australia, and in this study we investigate the indospicine content of plant samples collected across various regions, including both prostrate and upright forms. All samples were collected in March-July, dried, milled and analysed by UPLC-MS/MS in an adaption of our method (Tan et al 2014). Indospicine was determined in all I. linnaei plant samples regardless of region or growth form (Table 1). Measured levels were in the range 159.5 to 658.8 mg/kg DM and indicate that this plant may pose a similar problem in all areas dependent on local seasonal abundance.

Precise determination of aquatic plant wet mass using a salad spinner

The reliable assessment of macrophyte biomass is fundamental for ecological research and management of freshwater ecosystems. While dry mass is routinely used to determine aquatic plant biomass, wet (fresh) mass can be more practical. We tested the accuracy and precision of wet mass measurements by using a salad spinner to remove surface water from four macrophyte species differing in growth form and architectural complexity. The salad spinner aided in making precise and accurate wet mass with less than 3% error. There was also little difference between operators, with a user bias estimated to be below 5%. To achieve this level of precision, only 10–20 turns of the salad spinner are needed. Therefore, wet mass of a sample can be determined in less than 1 min. We demonstrated that a salad spinner is a rapid and economical technique to enable precise and accurate macrophyte wet mass measurements and is particularly suitable for experimental work. The method will also be useful for fieldwork in situations when sample sizes are not overly large.

Should I stay or should I go? : Reproductive and dispersal strategies of site-specific liverwort species

The area of intensively managed forests, in which required conditions for several liverwort species are seldom found, has expanded over the forest landscape during the last century. Liverworts are very sensitive to habitat changes, because they demand continuously moist microclimate. Consequently, about third of the forest liverworts have been classified as threatened or near threatened in Finland. The general objective of this thesis is to increase knowledge of the reproductive and dispersal strategies of the substrate-specific forest bryophytes. A further aim was to develop recommendations for conservation measures for species inhabiting unstable and stable habitats in forest landscape. Both population ecological and genetic methods have been applied in the research. Anastrophyllum hellerianum inhabits spatially and temporally limited substrate patches, decaying logs, which can be considered as unstable habitats. The results show that asexual reproduction by gemmae is the dominant mode of reproduction, whereas sexual reproduction is considerably infrequent. Unlike previously assumed, not only spores but also the asexual propagules may contribute to long-distance dispersal. The combination of occasional spore production and practically continuous, massive gemma production facilitates dispersal both on a local scale and over long distances, and it compensates for the great propagule losses that take place preceding successful establishment at suitable sites. However, establishment probability of spores may be restricted because of environmental and biological limitations linked to the low success of sexual reproduction. Long-lasting dry seasons are likely to result in a low success of sexual reproduction and decreased release rate of gemmae from the shoots, and consequent fluctuations in population sizes. In the long term, the substratum limitation is likely to restrict population sizes and cause local extinctions, especially in small-sized remnant populations. Contrastingly, larger forest fragments with more natural disturbance dynamics, to which the species is adapted, are pivotal to species survival. Trichocolea tomentella occupies stable spring and mesic habitats in woodland. The relatively small populations are increasingly fragmented with a high risk for extinction for extrinsic reasons. The results show that T. tomentella mainly invests in population persistence by effective clonal growth via forming independent ramets and in competitive ability, and considerably less in sexuality and dispersal potential. The populations possess relatively high levels of genetic diversity regardless of population size and of degree of isolation. Thus, the small-sized populations inhabiting stable habitats should not be neglected when establishing conservation strategies for the species and when considering the habitat protection of small spring sites. Restricted dispersal capacity, also on a relatively small spatial scale, is likely to prevent successful (re-)colonization in the potential habitat patches of recovering forest landscapes. By contrast, random short-range dispersal of detached vegetative fragments within populations at suitable habitat seems to be frequent. Thus, the restoration actions of spring and streamside habitats close to the populations of T. tomentella may contribute to population expansion. That, in turn, decreases the harmful effects of environmental stochasticity.

Taxonomy and phylogeny of the manna lichens and allied species (Megasporaceae)

This dissertation is focused on the taxonomy, phylogeny, and ecology of the vagrant, erratic and allied terricolous and saxicolous species of the genera Aspicilia A. Massal. and Circinaria Link (Megasporaceae), particularly those traditionally referred to as manna lichens . The group has previously been defined on the basis of few morphological characters. The phylogeny of the family Megasporaceae is inferred from the combined dataset of nuLSU and mtSSU sequences. Five genera Aspicilia, Circinaria, Lobothallia, Megaspora, and Sagedia are recognized. Lobothallia is sister of the four other genera, while Aspicilia and Sagedia form the next clade. All these genera have small asci with eight spores. Circinaria is a sister genus of Megaspora, and these two have in common asci with (1 4) 6 8 large spores. Circinaria forms a monophyletic group and sphaerothallioid species form a monophyletic group within Circinaria. The presence of certain morphological characters such as pseudocyphellae, thickness of cortex and medulla layers, as well as ecological differences in sphaerothallioid species distinguish it from some other crustose species, especially those containing aspicilin and characterised by thin cortex and medulla layers, conidium length c. 6 12 µm and absence of pseudocyphellae. If sphaerothallioid species are accepted as a distinct genus, the rest of the Circinaria species would remain as a paraphyletic assemblage. Currently, the genus Circinaria includes all the sphaerothallioid species and its generic position is confirmed and accepted. Thus, it is proposed as a correct generic name also for the manna lichens described originally in other genera. Phylogeny at the species level was studied using nrITS sequence data. Traditionally, morphological characters have been used for the recognition of species. They were re-evaluated in the light of molecular data. Since characters such as vagrant, erratic and crustose growth forms proved to be misleading for the recognition of some species, a combination of several characters (including molecular data) is recommended. Vagrant growth form seems to have evolved several times among the distantly related lineages and even within a single population. The reasons behind the high plasticity in the external morphology of the sphaerothallioid Circinaria remain, however, unknown. Six new species are recognized: Aspicilia tibetica, Circinaria arida, C. digitata nom provis., C. gyrosa nom. provis., C. rogeri nom. provis., and C. rostamii nom. provis. Based on an analysis of nrITS dataset, three new erratic, vagrant and crustose species were also recognized, but these require additional study. The results also reveal that C. elmorei and C. hispida are not monophyletic as currently understood. In addition, 13 new combinations in the genus Circinaria are proposed.

Ethnobotany of the Monpa ethnic group at Arunachal Pradesh, India

Background: The present paper documents the uses of plants in traditional herbal medicine for human and veterinary ailments, and those used for dietary supplements, religious purpose, local beverage, and plants used to poison fish and wild animals. Traditional botanical medicine is the primary mode of healthcare for most of the rural population in Arunachal Pradesh. Materials and methods: Field research was conducted between April 2006 and March 2009 with randomly selected 124 key informants using semi-structured questionnaire. The data obtained was analyzed through informant consensus factor (F(IC)) to determine the homogeneity of informant's knowledge on medicinal plants. Results: We documented 50 plants species belonging to 29 families used for treating 22 human and 4 veterinary ailments. Of the medicinal plants reported, the most common growth form was herbs (40%) followed by shrubs, trees, and climbers. Leaves were most frequently used plant parts. The consensus analysis revealed that the dermatological ailments have the highest F(IC) (0.56) and the gastro-intestinal diseases have F(IC) (0.43). F(IC) values indicated that there was high agreement in the use of plants in dermatological and gastro-intestinal ailments category among the users. Gymnocladus assamicus is a critically rare and endangered species used as disinfectant for cleaning wounds and parasites like leeches and lice on livestocks. Two plant species (Illicium griffithii and Rubia cordifolia) are commonly used for traditional dyeing of clothes and food items. Some of the edible plants recorded in this study were known for their treatment against high blood pressure (Clerodendron colebrookianum), diabetes mellitus (Momordica charantia), and intestinal parasitic worms like round and tape worms (Lindera neesiana, Solanum etiopicum, and Solanum indicum). The Monpas of Arunachal Pradesh have traditionally been using Daphne papyracea for preparing hand-made paper for painting and writing religious scripts in Buddhist monasteries. Three plant species (Derris scandens, Aesculus assamica, and Polygonum hydropiper) were frequently used to poison fish during the month of June-July every year and the underground tuber of Aconitum ferrox is widely used in arrow poisoning to kill ferocious animals like bear, wild pigs, gaur and deer. The most frequently cited plant species; Buddleja asiatica and Hedyotis scandens were used as common growth supplements during the preparation of fermentation starter cultures. Conclusion: The traditional pharmacopoeia of the Monpa ethnic group incorporates a myriad of diverse botanical flora. Traditional knowledge of the remedies is passed down through oral traditions without any written document. This traditional knowledge is however, currently threatened mainly due to acculturation and deforestation due to continuing traditional shifting cultivation. This study reveals that the rural populations in Arunachal Pradesh have a rich knowledge of forest-based natural resources and consumption of wild edible plants is still an integral part of their socio-cultural life. Findings of this documentation study can be used as an ethnopharmacological basis for selecting plants for future phytochemical and pharmaceutical studies.

克隆植物对异质性环境的生态适应对策

时空异质性是生境的基本特征。几乎所有植物都是在一定尺度的时空异质性环境中完成其生活史的。在进化过程中，植物可能形成了各种有效利用环境异质性的生态适应对策。克隆生长使得克隆植物在理论上更容易适应于异质性环境。本文以匍匐茎和根状茎型草本为材料，应用实验生态学方法研究了游击型克隆植物对异质性环境的生态适应对策。 在沙丘生境（如毛乌素沙地）中，沙埋是植物常常遭遇的事件。由于沙埋在水平空间表现出非均匀性，克隆植物的基株或克隆片断常常经历局部沙埋。通过温室和野外实验，研究了克隆整合作用对鹅绒委陵菜和沙鞭沙埋分株忍受沙埋能力的影响。结果表明，克隆整合显著提高鹅绒委陵菜和沙鞭沙埋分株的存活。进一步的耗-益分析表明，克隆整合使鹅绒委陵菜沙埋分株显著受益，而对非沙埋分株却没有显著耗损，故整个克隆片断的生长得到显著提高。因此，克隆整合是沙丘生境中克隆植物对局部沙埋胁迫的生态适应对策之一。 通过2个温室实验，研究了金戴戴对光照、基质养分和盐分的克隆可塑性。结果表明：光照强度、基质养分和盐分对金戴戴克隆生长和克隆形态均有十分显著的影响。深度遮光、低养和高盐均显著削弱金戴戴的生长，其生物量、叶面积、分株数、匍匐茎长及叶柄长和根冠比对基质盐分的可塑性大小和格局显示出基株间的差异。在低养分条件下，金戴戴匍匐茎节间显著伸长，而分枝强度显著减弱。这些结果与克隆植物觅食模型相符合，表明当生长于异质性环境，金戴戴可凭借克隆可塑性实现的觅养行为来增加对养分资源的摄取。因此，克隆可塑性是克隆植物利用环境异质性的另一条途径。 在另一温室实验中，研究了三种匍匐茎克隆草本鹅绒委陵菜、金戴戴和绢毛匍匐委陵菜对光照和养分资源交互斑块性环境的反应。当置于高光低养下的分株与低光高养下的分株相连时，高光低养分株、低光高养分株以及克隆片断的生物量均得到显著提高。同时，低光高养下分株的根冠比相对增加，而高光低养下分株的根冠比相对下降。这表明，三种克隆植物发生了环境诱导的克隆内分工行为。这种环境诱导的克隆内分工行为有利于整个基株对资源交互斑块性环境的利用，是克隆植物对异质性环境的生态适应对策。

资源异质性环境中植物克隆生长的描述与模拟

植物克隆生长型主要由遗传结构决定，不同的克隆植物具有不同的克隆生长型，同时植物的克隆生长型又依具体生境和个体发育阶段不同而变化。Harper认为植物构件的结构由分枝角度、节间长度和芽的成活率决定。大量的研究表明克隆植物生长型主要由3个形态参数决定：节间长度、分枝角度和分枝强度。 植物的生境条件无论在时间还是空间上都是异质性的，即使在很小的尺度上这种异质性也是存在的。在这种具有异质性的生境条件下几乎所有植物都有表型可塑性。植物的表型可塑性是指植物在不同的环境因子条件下，在形态、生物量、生理等方面产生的一系列不同。表现型可塑性是植物种群克服环境异质性的重要途径，也是克隆植物实现觅养行为的途径。克隆植物的觅养行为是通过根茎或匍匐茎的长度和分枝强度的变化以及生物量的分配来实现其迁移和对生境的选择，从而将分株安置在各种微环境中。 克隆植物构型的可塑性可使它在土壤水分斑块性分布的环境中通过克隆生长，调整对不同斑块的土壤水分获取对策。在一田间实验中，匍匐茎草本蛇莓（Duchesnea indica Focke）经历了不同土壤水分水平（土壤最大含水量的40%、60%、80%、100%等）处理，以研究土壤水分对蛇莓克隆构型的影响。结果表明：间隔子长度、分株密度、分枝角度和分枝强度呈二次曲线变化，土壤含水为最大含水量的80%为最适生境。 克隆植物构型的可塑性可使它在养分斑块性分布的环境中通过克隆生长调整相应于对不同斑块的养分获取对策。在一田间实验中，蛇莓经历了不同土壤养分水平（高、中、低和对照）处理，以研究土壤养分对蛇莓克隆构型的影响。结果表明：随着土壤养分水平的增加，间隔子的长度、分枝角度均逐渐降低，分枝强度和分株密度增加。 克隆植物构型的可塑性可使它在不同光强的环境中通过克隆生长，调整其对不同光强的资源获取对策。在控制性光资源异质性生境（模拟浓密林荫、稀疏林荫、农田间套作、裸地等）下，研究和模拟了光资源的时空异质性和蛇莓的克隆可塑性变化。结果表明：随着光照强度的增加，间隔子长度的长度逐渐降低，分枝角度、分株强度呈二次曲线变化。 克隆植物构型的可塑性可使它在不同海拔的环境中通过克隆生长，调整其对不同海拔的资源获取对策。在一海拔高度实验中，匍匐茎草本蛇莓经历了不同海拔(400 m、800 m、1200 m和1600 m)处理，以研究不同海拔对蛇莓克隆构型的影响。结果表明：随着海拔的增加，间隔子长度、分株密度、分枝角度和分枝强度呈二次曲线变化。 从克隆植物生长环境（小气候）定量分析了克隆植物生长必需资源如水分、养分、光强、海拔等的变化特性。具体描述和分析了异质环境尺度的大小和等级数。在前人研究成果的基础上，验证了克隆植物生长必需资源分布异质性的数学模型并建立相应的运算模块。在不同水分、养分、光强和海拔等异质性生境中，蛇莓克隆构型相关特征的可塑性变化可用动态Logistic模型进行模拟和预测，拟合效果较好。结合植物对环境异质性的利用对策，对所揭示的蛇莓克隆构型可塑性进行了讨论。 用分形技术描述了蛇莓在资源斑块性分布的生境中，通过克隆生长调整相应于对不同斑块的资源获取对策。植物克隆构型的形态特征在一定尺度范围内具有自相似特征。蛇莓克隆构型的分形维数直接反映了在异质性生境中蛇莓克隆生长的差异。蛇莓克隆生长越发达分形维数越高。相对小的分形维数，反映出蛇莓克隆生长相对较弱。基于计算机图像技术和分形理论，建立了植物克隆生长分形度量的计算机模型，实现了对植物克隆生长过程的计算机模拟。模拟的蛇莓克隆生长形态与实际生长不仅具有相近的分形维数，而且形态也非常相似。利用克隆生长模型的预测能力克服实验生态学难以逾越的某些研究盲点，其研究成果将对克隆植物利用资源异质性的生态对策研究具有重要的指导意义。

毛乌素沙地两种根茎型植物克隆生长的生态适应意义

在干旱气候背景下的毛乌素沙地，干旱、风沙是十分突出的环境胁迫因子。植物的生存与繁衍受到这些因子的强烈作用。在这里生存繁衍的许多克隆植物，在长期的生态适应与进化中，形成了有效的生态适应机制来克服沙地环境的不利影响。本研究选择在毛乌素沙地广泛分布的根茎型克隆植物羊柴（Hedysarum laeve Maxim.）和拂子茅(Calamagrostis epigejos (L.) Roth.)为实验对象，运用实验生态学的方法与途径，来探讨它们对环境因子的适应机制。 羊柴为毛乌素沙地的主要固沙植物与优良豆科牧草，在该地区广泛用于飞播和直播种植。对毛乌素沙地区域生态环境建设与畜牧业经济发展起到了重大作用。在毛乌素沙地，水分短缺是植物生长和繁殖的重要限制因子。同时，受地形、生物、基质等因素的影响，毛乌素沙地的水分往往呈异质性的空间分布。羊柴克隆的相连分株极有可能处于异质性水分供应的不同生境位点上。因而，相连的羊柴分株能否对异质性水分供应发生反应，以及反应的耗一益状况，是羊柴克隆对干旱与水分异质性生态适应的基本问题。为此，采用人工设置异质性水分供应的方法，研究了一对相连的羊柴成年克隆分株对水分异质性的反应及反应的耗一益状况。结果显示：分株的水分供应状况，对相连的另一分株的生长有着显著的影响。当生长于低水分供应土壤中的分株与生长于高水分供应土壤中的分株相连接时，此分株的地上植株、根系、新生根茎的产生都有显著的提高，生物量分配与同质高土壤水分供应的分株无显著差异;而同时，与此分株相连的、处于高水分供应土壤中的分株在生长上却无明显的减弱，并且将明显多的生物量分配到地下根系。这表明：分株间发生着明显的水分共享，相连的克隆分株通过水分共享对异质性水分供应发生反应：并且水分共享使处于低水分供应土壤中的羊柴分株显著获益而并不显著地牺牲另一处于高水分供应土壤中的羊柴分株的生长。水分共享可能是羊柴克隆对沙地水分异质性的生态适应机制之一。 风积沙埋在毛乌素沙地生态系统中频繁发生，直接影响着种子发芽后，幼苗的存活与成功定居。因而，对传播到沙地中的植物种具有选择作用。羊柴在近数十年来被大量地用于沙地飞播，以防风固沙重建沙地植被。羊柴在种子萌发后，幼苗很有可能遭受沙埋。为了探讨羊柴幼苗对沙埋的反应，对一周龄、二周龄的羊柴幼苗进行了为期6周的人工沙埋实验，实验结果显示：沙埋对羊柴幼苗的存活、生长影响极为显著，重度沙埋（沙埋深度达到或超过幼苗的高度）可使大量或全部羊柴幼苗死亡;一定深度的沙埋（沙埋深度不超过幼苗株高）羊柴幼苗不仅可以全部存活，而且其整株生物量、叶片生物量、根系生物量以及相对生长率都相应地高于非沙埋的对照（即：不沙埋），而且新生叶片的产生要显著地多于不沙埋的对照。与非沙埋的对照相比，一定深度的沙埋并不显著地改变羊柴幼苗的生物量分配格局，其株高也不发生明显的变化。根据本实验的结果，在飞播羊柴时最好先在流沙和半流沙上设置一些人工固沙、阻沙的设施，以避免羊柴幼苗遭受重度沙埋，降低其定居和形成种群的风险，促进其形成种群，提高飞播成效。 在本研究的实施地一毛乌素沙地，环境胁迫与扰动经常发生，异质性的生境条件有着广泛的分布。严酷的生存环境与异质性，为植物采取多样的生态适应策略提供了前提条件。克隆植物的相连分株间是否发生资源共享以及资源共享的时空格局具有种类特异性。拂子茅为根茎型多年生禾草。其根茎细长，在分株建立后并不随分株的年龄的增加与体形的增大而发生明显的加粗生长。为了探讨拂子茅在异质性水分环境中的表型差异，对拂子茅由母株、子株组成的分株对给予了高水、低水两种不同的异质性水分处理。实验结果表明：水分供应状况直径影响着拂子茅的分株生长表型。在高水条件下，拂子茅的分株能产生多的根茎、新生 后代分株，并将生物量主要用于地上部分生长，从而积累多的地上生物量;在低水条件下，拂子茅分株产生较少的根茎与新生后代分株，并且分配到根系的生物量明显增大。在具有一定对比度的异质性水分环境中，拂子茅分株并不因与其相连的分株所处的水分供应状况而在根茎生长、新生后代分株的产生和生物量分配等特征上，与同质环境中的具有相同水分供应状况的分株表现出有明显的差异。这些结果揭示：拂子茅仅以分株的形式对异质性水分在表型上发生反应;相连的克隆分株在向顶向和向基向这两个基本方向上，不能对另一分株的水分供应状况在生长表型上发生反应，它们在水分关系上可能是相互相对独立的。分株的相对独立有利于在气候干旱、扰动强烈的沙地环境中实现风险分摊，提高基株的存活机率。 可以推断：处于同一环境中的不同克隆植物种在长期的进化中，也可以选择截然不同的生态策略来适应环境。

根茎克隆植物羊草分株种群对去叶干扰的生长对策

克隆植物具有多种不同于非克隆植物的生长和繁殖策略。本研究首先综述了这些生长与繁殖策略之中，与我们的实验研究相关的尤其是对于去叶干扰适应策略的四个方面，包括克隆整合、克隆分株大小与密度之权衡( tradeoff)过程、碳水化合物贮备与利用、营养繁殖和芽种群(bud population)调节等。预测克隆植物选择什么样的对策以及某种对策发生作用的条件及程度如何，对克隆植物生态学研究者来说，将是富有挑战意味的课题。 羊草(Leymus chinensis (Trin,) Tzvel.)是禾本科的一种多年生根茎型克隆植物，常常处于由放牧或刈割造成的去叶干扰( defoliation)的胁迫下。在我们的第一个实验（2002年）中，考察了去叶干扰和根茎切割( rhizome severing)是否影响根茎本身和分株地上部分的生长、以及营养繁殖芽的数量特征。同时我们检验如下的假设：直接受到去叶干扰的分株除了会受益于可能的补偿作用之外，还会受益于克隆整合作用，即与之保持根茎联系的未受去叶处理的分株将转移碳水化合物或养分给受去叶干扰的分株，使之得以尽快恢复光合组织。实验结果显示：单次去叶干扰影响根茎生长和芽的产生，而对地上部分的生长影响甚微。只有重度去叶干扰才显著影响营养繁殖芽的产生，而轻度去叶干扰作用不明显。所以，当去叶强度不大时，补偿作用机制将弥补植物由于去叶干扰而受到的损失。我们的实验并未检测到克隆整合的发生，可能的原因是本实验持续的时间不足够长或者是由于根茎中的碳水化合物贮备在去叶干扰发生后发挥了作用，缓解了去叶干扰对羊草分株生长及芽生产的所造成的冲击。 在第二个实验（200 3年）中，为了考查相继数次的去叶干扰是否能够启动羊草分株间的克隆整合，以及启动克隆整合所需达到的去叶干扰的频次，我们将实验样方设计为两部分：核心区( Core section)和外围区(Periphery section)。不同频次的去叶处理（0去叶，作为对照; 1次去叶;3次去叶;5次去叶）仅施加于实验样方的核心区。结果表明，经历3次和5次去叶处理的样方外围区的生物量及水溶性碳水化合物( wsc)含量均明显少于经历1次去叶处理及0去叶处理的样方外围区，这意味着克隆整合在3次去叶和5次去叶两种处理中发生了，而在其它两种处理中没有发生。此外，分株的大小一数目之权衡可能在基株(genet)水平上发生，因此，一个克隆植物基株，当部分分株受到去叶干扰后，将增加其分株数目，但优先增加未受到去叶干扰部分的分株数目。我们将羊草的这种行为视为克隆基株试图逃避干扰的“逃逸行为”( escaping behavior)。 同时在实验中，我们监测了实验样方核心区分株的wsc浓度，目的是查明羊草枝条与根茎中wsc浓度随时间的变化格局及其对去叶干扰的响应，意在发现羊草枝条地上、地下部分和根茎中wsc浓度的时间变化之间的联系。在生长旺季，对照处理（即O去叶处理）的wsc浓度显著降低，这是由于植物在此时期的高生长速率和高呼吸速率所致;相比之下，其它经历去叶干扰的三个处理中羊草wsc浓度降低不如对照处理那么明显和迅速，甚至在高频次去叶处理中还有所上升，其原因大概是由于去叶而使叶面积减小，引起枝条的总呼吸下降所致。羊草枝条中最终的wsc浓度没有受到单次去叶处理的显著影响，却很可观地受到相继数次去叶干扰（3次和5次去叶处理）的影响。去叶干扰可能加速了碳水化合物在气温降低时自地上向地下的转移。枝条的地下部分wsc浓度比地上部分更稳定。在地上部分受到去叶干扰后，根茎中的wsc必然向上输出到地上枝条，而强烈的生长会消耗wsc，但可能的克隆整合（通常在相对频繁的去叶干扰条件下发生）将在一定程度上缓解这种wsc消耗。 在此实验中，我们还监测了羊草平均每分株所拥有的芽的数目，包括每分株分蘖节芽（tiller bud）数目和根茎芽(thizomatous bud)数目。从平均每分株芽数目的时间动态来看，各种去叶处理之间的差异程度不大，这主要是羊草在受到去叶干扰后补偿作用的贡献。与对照处理相比，受不同频次去叶干扰的三个处理的根茎芽具有相对于分蘖节的更强的增长优势。去叶干扰对根茎芽生长的促进作用大于对分蘖节芽的促进作用。我们认为这种反应是羊草克隆基株的一种逃避干扰的适应性努力，可视为一种“逃逸行为”，也可看作克隆植物觅养行为(foraging behavior)的一种特殊形式。芽的增长在中等频度的去叶干扰条件下最强，似乎同样符合中度干扰理论。有趣的是，特定频度的去叶干扰可能会造成芽种群中两大类型芽之间比例（根茎芽／分蘖节芽）的振荡现象（Oscillation）。 最后展望了对于羊草今后应继续开展的工作主要集中在两大方面：一是有性繁殖与无性繁殖之间在不同生境或不同干扰条件下的权衡关系;二是处于不同斑块对比度( patch contrast)的生境中的羊草克隆分株之问的生理整合，及其强度与斑块对比度的定量关系。

植物克隆性在生态修复中的意义：鄂尔多斯高原赖草和沙鞭的案例

克隆植物通过克隆生长能够很好的适应异质性的生境。在进行植被修复的研究和实践中，注意发扬或引进具有重要资源价值的克隆植物是重要的恢复生态学思考和途径。本文主要应用实验生态学的方法，通过对鄂尔多斯高原不同克隆植物克隆性及其对水分条件的反应的比较，以及对不同克隆植物抵抗风蚀和风蚀坑修复的能力的比较，探讨克隆植物对干旱(水分条件)及风蚀的适应机制，从而对克隆植物的克隆性在生态修复中的意义进行了研究和阐述。 　　对不同水分条件下赖草(Leymus secalinus (Georgi.) Tzvel)和沙鞭(Psammochloa villosa (Trin.) Bor)克隆性的研究表明：克隆生长开始时间和克隆生长率二者与克隆植物新产生子代分株数量之间存在着显著的相关关系，说明克隆生长开始时间和克隆生长率能够作为准确评价克隆性的指标;相对于沙鞭来说，赖草具有更强的克隆性，表现在它的早的克隆生长开始时间、高的克隆生长率，并且这种差异可以被水分条件所修饰;植物的克隆性对水分条件具有较强的可塑性，这种可塑性具有种间差异。相对赖草来说，沙鞭能更好地适应干旱条件。 　　克隆植物植株有两种繁殖体类型，分株和种子。本研究对分别从分株来源和种子来源的赖草与沙鞭植株在不同水分条件下生长状况及克隆性进行了比较，结果表明：水分的增加，有利于赖草的生长;而对于沙鞭来说，水分抑制了分株来源的沙鞭植株的生长，但对种子来源的沙鞭植株的生长有着促进作用。克隆植物的克隆性在水分条件较好的情况下能够得到更好的表达。不同来源有赖草植株之间克隆性没有明显差异;对于沙鞭来说，分株来源的沙鞭植株克隆性受水分条件的影响不明显，但水分有利于种子来源的沙鞭植株克隆性的表达。说明不同繁殖体类型来源的植株，克隆性对水分的反应格局存在着一定的差异。分株来源的沙鞭植株对干旱条件具有比种子来源的植株更强的适应性。 　　通过对沙鞭和赖草实生幼苗在不同风蚀程度下生长状况的比较，结果表明二者幼苗在抵抗风蚀时采取不同的策略。风蚀显著降低了赖草产生新生分株的能力，而对沙鞭潜在分株数没有显著影响。赖草实生幼苗生长状况在轻中度风蚀条件下与对照处理没有显著差异，说明对风蚀具有较强的抵抗能力，其策略可能是风险分担，赖草具有的强克隆性使之能快速产生新的子代分株，从而分担了风蚀造成的风险;沙鞭实生幼苗的生长状况受风蚀影响较为明显，但风蚀没有能对其产生潜在分株(芽)的能力产生显著的影响，说明沙鞭实生幼苗对风蚀可能采取的是通过芽的产生贮存资源、逃避风险、等待机会的策略。赖草和沙鞭对风蚀所采用的不同适应策略，可能会影响到二者在自然条件下种群更新方式的选择。 　　为了探讨克隆植物对风蚀坑修复能力及机理，研究了沙鞭和赖草对种群内风蚀坑的修复过程，结果表明：合轴型克隆草本赖草具有比单轴型克隆草本沙鞭更强的植被修复能力，能够在风蚀坑中产生更多的新生分株，这主要归功于赖草的强克隆性，而赖草间隔子的可塑性反应也有利于将更多的新生分株放置在风蚀坑内。二者进行植被修复的机理有所差异，赖草对风蚀坑的修复主要是通过周围根茎扩展进入坑中，然后产生新的分株;而沙鞭不仅可以通过周边根茎进入产生新的分株，同时也可以通过刺激深层休眠芽来产生新的分株。二者都能在风蚀坑中产生比自然条件下更多的分株，以更好利用风蚀坑中充足的光照;但同时这些分株的生长也受到风蚀坑中养分条件的制约，生物量和生长状况都不如自然条件下形成的分株。 　　 　　

不同生活型植物对机械刺激的反应

机械刺激效应（Effects of mechanical stimulation）是风生态学直接效应的主要表现形式。研究机械刺激对植物的影响，有利于将风的直接与间接效应区别开来，从而精确研究植物对风的反应格局;研究不同生活型植物对机械刺激的反应是植物力学与植物生态学的重要内容，有助于揭示植物对生境的适应机制。 本研究涉及三个实验。第一个实验探讨不同生活型植物对机械刺激和水分互作的响应格局;第二个实验研究匍匐茎草本植物蛇莓对部分机械刺激的反应;最后一个实验揭示不同水分供应条件下，番茄和紫花苜蓿对不同机械刺激频度的响应。在第一个实验中，克隆半灌木羊柴（Hedysarum laeve），一年生草本植物虫实（Corispermum mongolicum），多年生大型禾草沙鞭（Psammochloa villosa）和多年生丛生禾草黑麦草（Lolium perenne）分别接受由两个水平机械刺激（无刺激和刺激60 s d-1）和两个水平水分供应（200 ml d-1和400 ml d-1）组成的处理。在第二个实验中，匍匐茎草本蛇莓（Duchesnea indica）接受4个不同水平的机械刺激：（1）整个克隆不受机械刺激;（2）整个克隆都受机械刺激;（3）除顶端外其余克隆部分受机械刺激;（4）仅克隆顶端受机械刺激，其余部分不受机械刺激。在最后一个实验中，番茄（Lycopersicon esculentum）和紫花苜蓿（Medicago sativa）接受由三个水平机械刺激频度（0，25赫兹和50赫兹）和三个水平水分供应（50ml，150ml和250ml）组成的处理。这些实验主要回答不同生活型植物的生长和（或）机械性状如何响应机械刺激。主要结果如下： （1）在对机械刺激和水分交互效应的实验中，交互效应随物种发生变化。机械刺激和水分的交互效应对羊柴、番茄和紫花苜蓿作用不显著，但对虫实、沙鞭和黑麦草作用显著。 （2）在对机械刺激的研究中，机械刺激对植物的效应有正负之分。如机械刺激降低羊柴和沙鞭的总生物量，表明其是一种胁迫因子。但对于虫实、番茄和紫花苜蓿来说，机械刺激却能不同程度地促进植物的生长。 （3）机械刺激对虫实的机械性状没有显著影响，但对羊柴的机械性状恰好相反。此外，水分对虫实机械性状有显著影响。 （4）不同植物对机械刺激频度的敏感性存在差异。对番茄来而言，50赫兹的机械刺激对其生长具有较强的促进作用;对紫花苜蓿来说，25赫兹的机械刺激对其生长具有较强的促进作用。 （5）蛇莓对局部机械刺激具有显著反应，特别是在顶端进行机械刺激的处理中，整个克隆片段的叶柄长度缩短，根冠比发生改变，将较多的生物量分配到根。 这些结果表明：（1）不同物种对机械刺激和水分互作的反应可能与机械震动方式及物种本身有关;（2）单位植物大小所承受的机械刺激的强度及物种的生长速率是不一样的;（3）不同反应间的相互作用及相互独立可部分解释物种间的效应差异;（4）接触性形态建成的效应不能从一个物种外推到另外一个物种。 以前的研究集中探讨直立茎植物对机械刺激的响应，而对匍匐茎植物的研究极为贫乏。我们对蛇莓部分机械刺激的研究仅仅是一个初步探索。蛇莓的可塑性行为可能是一种适应性策略，因为这类植物常常生长在机械刺激频繁的开阔生境中。上述三个实验仅仅从生长和机械角度探讨了植物的适应性，而要真正揭示植物对多风生境的适应需要对不同物种进行多水平、多层面的研究，以期掌握不同生活型植物对机械刺激响应的一般格局。例如，从激素、细胞、解剖结构等方面探索其内在机制。

Spatial and seasonal variations in benthic algal assemblages in streams in monsoonal Hong Kong

Samples from stone surfaces were collected in pools within four unpolluted hillstreams (two shaded and two unshaded) in monsoonal Hong Kong (lat. 23 degrees N) to elucidate the extent of spatial (within and among streams) and temporal (seasonal) variations in algal biomass and assemblage composition. Sampling continued for over 12 months, incorporating the dry season when streams were at baseflow, and the wet season when spates were frequent. We anticipated that algal biomass would be lower in shaded streams and during the wet season, with associated seasonal differences in assemblage composition or relative abundance of different growth forms (e. g. erect versus prostrate). Benthic chlorophyll a (a proxy for algal biomass) varied among streams from an annual mean of 11.0-22.3 mg m(-2). Dry-season standing stocks were 18% higher than during the wet season when spate-induced disturbance reduced algal standing stocks. Algal biomass varied significantly at the stream scale, but not at the pool scale, and was lower in unshaded streams, where standing stocks may have been limited by high densities of algivorous balitorid loaches (mainly Pseudogastromyzon myersi). An overriding effect of grazers on algal biomass could also have reduced variations resulting from spate-induced disturbance. Significant differences in assemblage composition among streams, which were dominated by diatoms and cyanobacteria (totally 82 taxa) were not systematically related to shading conditions. Seasonal variations in algal assemblages were statistically significant but rather minor, and did not involve major shifts in composition or growth form caused by spate-induced disturbance. The abundance of filamentous cyanobacteria in all the streams may have been due to 'gardening' by balitorid loaches that removed erect or stalked diatoms and favoured cyanobacteria that persist through basal regeneration of filaments. This explanation requires validation through manipulative experiments.

黄土丘陵区生态修复地不同抗侵蚀植物的消长变化过程

依据黄土丘陵区生态修复过程中植被演替阶段与植物生长型,将抗侵蚀植物分为一年生草本植物,多年生根茎禾草植物,多年生根蘖性草本和半灌木植物、灌木植物和乔木植物5类。一年生草本植物、多年生根茎禾草植物适应土壤侵蚀环境的能力比较强,同时具有一定程度的防止土壤侵蚀的作用;灌木和乔木植物适应土壤侵蚀环境的能力比较弱,而防止土壤侵蚀的作用很强;多年生草本和半灌木植物适应土壤侵蚀环境的能力适中,而防止土壤侵蚀作用的能力优于一年生草本和多年生根茎禾草群落,但不及乔灌木群落。并提出了在天然草本植被恢复的基础上进行人工造林的相关建议。

Global negative vegetation feedback to climate warming responses of leaf litter decomposition rates in cold biomes

Whether climate change will turn cold biomes from large long-term carbon sinks into sources is hotly debated because of the great potential for ecosystem-mediated feedbacks to global climate. Critical are the direction, magnitude and generality of climate responses of plant litter decomposition. Here, we present the first quantitative analysis of the major climate-change-related drivers of litter decomposition rates in cold northern biomes worldwide. Leaf litters collected from the predominant species in 33 global change manipulation experiments in circum-arctic-alpine ecosystems were incubated simultaneously in two contrasting arctic life zones. We demonstrate that longer-term, large-scale changes to leaf litter decomposition will be driven primarily by both direct warming effects and concomitant shifts in plant growth form composition, with a much smaller role for changes in litter quality within species. Specifically, the ongoing warming-induced expansion of shrubs with recalcitrant leaf litter across cold biomes would constitute a negative feedback to global warming. Depending on the strength of other (previously reported) positive feedbacks of shrub expansion on soil carbon turnover, this may partly counteract direct warming enhancement of litter decomposition.