Molecular Mechanisms of Androgen Receptor Interactions

The androgen receptor (AR) mediates the effects of the male sex-steroid hormones (androgens), testosterone and 5?-dihydrotestosterone. Androgens are critical in the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics. AR is a member of the steroid receptor ligand-inducible transcription factor family. The steroid receptor family is a subgroup of the nuclear receptor superfamily that also includes receptors for the active forms of vitamin A, vitamin D3, and thyroid hormones. Like all nuclear receptors, AR has a conserved modular structure consisting of a non-conserved amino-terminal domain (NTD), containing the intrinsic activation function 1, a highly conserved DNA-binding domain, and a conserved ligand-binding domain (LBD) that harbors the activation function 2. Each of these domains plays an important role in receptor function and signaling, either via intra- and inter-receptor interactions, interactions with specific DNA sequences, termed hormone response elements, or via functional interactions with domain-specific proteins, termed coregulators (coactivators and corepressors). Upon binding androgens, AR acquires a new conformational state, translocates to the nucleus, binds to androgen response elements, homodimerizes and recruits sequence-specific coregulatory factors and the basal transcription machinery. This set of events is required to activate gene transcription (expression). Gene transcription is a strictly modulated process that governs cell growth, cell homeostasis, cell function and cell death. Disruptions of AR transcriptional activity caused by receptor mutations and/or altered coregulator interactions are linked to a wide spectrum of androgen insensitivity syndromes, and to the pathogenesis of prostate cancer (CaP). The treatment of CaP usually involves androgen depletion therapy (ADT). ADT achieves significant clinical responses during the early stages of the disease. However, under the selective pressure of androgen withdrawal, androgen-dependent CaP can progress to an androgen-independent CaP. Androgen-independent CaP is invariably a more aggressive and untreatable form of the disease. Advancing our understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind the switch in androgen-dependency would improve our success of treating CaP and other AR related illnesses. This study evaluates how clinically identified AR mutations affect the receptor s transcriptional activity. We reveal that a potential molecular abnormality in androgen insensitivity syndrome and CaP patients is caused by disruptions of the important intra-receptor NTD/LBD interaction. We demonstrate that the same AR LBD mutations can also disrupt the recruitment of the p160 coactivator protein GRIP1. Our investigations reveal that 30% of patients with advanced, untreated local CaP have somatic mutations that may lead to increases in AR activity. We report that somatic mutations that activate AR may lead to early relapse in ADT. Our results demonstrate that the types of ADT a CaP patient receives may cause a clustering of mutations to a particular region of the receptor. Furthermore, the mutations that arise before and during ADT do not always result in a receptor that is more active, indicating that coregulator interactions play a pivotal role in the progression of androgen-independent CaP. To improve CaP therapy, it is necessary to identify critical coregulators of AR. We screened a HeLa cell cDNA library and identified small carboxyl-terminal domain phosphatase 2 (SCP2). SCP2 is a protein phosphatase that directly interacts with the AR NTD and represses AR activity. We demonstrated that reducing the endogenous cellular levels of SCP2 causes more AR to load on to the prostate specific antigen (PSA) gene promoter and enhancer regions. Additionally, under the same conditions, more RNA polymerase II was recruited to the PSA promoter region and overall there was an increase in androgen-dependent transcription of the PSA gene, revealing that SCP2 could play a role in the pathogenesis of CaP.

Orphan nuclear receptor subfamily NR4A their interplay with other nuclear receptors and functions in osteoblasts

Nurr1, NGFI-B and Nor1 (NR4A2, NR4A1 and NR4A3, respectively) belong to the NR4A subfamily of nuclear receptors. The NR4A receptors are orphan nuclear receptors which means that activating or repressing ligands for these receptors have not been found. NR4A expression is rapidly induced in response to various stimuli including growth factors and the parathyroid hormone (PTH). The studies concerning the NR4A receptors in the central nervous system have demonstrated that they have a major role in the development and function of the dopaminergic neurons of the midbrain and in regulating hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal-axis. However, the peripheral functions of the NR4A family are largely unknown. Cultured mouse primary osteoblasts, a preosteoblastic cell line and several osteoblastic cell lines were used to investigate the role of NR4A receptors in osteoblasts. NR4A receptors were shown to directly bind to and activate the promoter of the osteopontin gene (OPN) in osteoblastic cells, thus regulating its expression. OPN is a major bone matrix protein expressed throughout the differentiation of preosteoblastic cells into osteoblasts. The activation of the OPN promoter was shown to be dependent on the activation function-1 located in the N-terminal part of Nurr1 and to occur in both monomeric and RXR heterodimeric forms of NR4A receptors. Furthermore, PTH was shown to upregulate OPN expression through the NR4A family. It was also demonstrated that the fibroblast growth factor-8b (FGF-8b) induces the expression of NR4A receptors in osteoblasts as immediate early genes. This induction involved phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, protein kinase C, and mitogen activated protein kinase, which are all major pathways of FGF signalling. Nurr1 and NGFI-B were shown to induce the proliferation of preosteoblastic cells and to reduce their apoptosis. FGF-8b was shown to stimulate the proliferation of osteoblastic cells through the NR4A receptors. These results suggest that NR4A receptors have a role both in the differentiation of osteoblasts and in the proliferation and apoptosis of preosteoblast. The NR4A receptors were found to bind to the same response element on OPN as the members of the NR3B family of orphan receptors do. Mutual repression was observed between the NR4A receptors and the NR3B receptors. This repression was shown to be dependent on the DNA-binding domains of both receptor families, but to result neither from the competition of DNA binding nor from the competition for coactivators. As the repression was dependent on the relative expression levels of the NR4As and NR3Bs, it seems likely that the ratio of the receptors mediates their activity on their response elements. Rapid induction of the NR4As in response to various stimuli and differential expression of the NR3Bs can effectively control the gene activation by the NR4A receptors. NR4A receptors can bind DNA as monomers, and Nurr1 and NGFI-B can form permissive heterodimers with the retinoid X receptor (RXR). Permissive heterodimers can be activated with RXR agonists, unlike non-permissive heterodimers, which are formed by RXR and retinoic acid receptor or thyroid hormone receptor (RAR and TR, respectively). Non-permissive heterodimers can only be activated by the agonists of the heterodimerizing partner. The mechanisms behind differential response to RXR agonists have remained unresolved. As there are no activating or repressing ligands for the NR4A receptors, it would be important to find out, how they are regulated. Permissiviness of Nurr1/RXR heterodimers was linked to the N-terminal part of Nurr1 ligand-binding domain. This region has previously been shown to mediate the interaction between NRs and corepressors. Non-permissive RAR and TR, permissive Nurr1 and NGFI-B, and RXR were overexpressed with corepressors silencing mediator for retinoic acid and thyroid hormone receptors (SMRT), and with nuclear receptor corepressor in several cell lines. Nurr1 and NGFI-B were found to be repressed by SMRT. The interaction of RXR heterodimers with corepressors was weak in permissive heterodimers and much stronger in non-permissive heterodimers. Non-permissive heterodimers also released corepressors only in response to the agonist of the heterodimeric partner of RXR. In the permissive Nurr1/RXR heterodimer, however, SMRT was released following the treatment with RXR agonists. Corepressor release in response to ligands was found to differentiate permissive heterodimers from non-permissive ones. Corepressors were thus connected to the regulation of NR4A functions. In summary, the studies presented here linked the NR4A family of orphan nuclear receptors to the regulation of osteoblasts. Nurr1 and NGFI-B were found to control the proliferation and apoptosis of preosteoblasts. The studies also demonstrated that cross-talk with the NR3B receptors controls the activity of these orphan receptors. The results clarified the mechanism of permissiviness of RXR-heterodimers. New information was obtained on the regulation and functions of NR4A receptors, for which the ligands are unknown.

A genome-wide association study of caffeine-related sleep disturbance: Confirmation of a role for a common variant in the adenosine receptor

OBJECTIVES To identify common genetic variants that predispose to caffeine-induced insomnia and to test whether genes whose expression changes in the presence of caffeine are enriched for association with caffeine-induced insomnia. DESIGN A hypothesis-free, genome-wide association study. SETTING Community-based sample of Australian twins from the Australian Twin Registry. PARTICIPANTS After removal of individuals who said that they do not drink coffee, a total of 2,402 individuals from 1,470 families in the Australian Twin Registry provided both phenotype and genotype information. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS A dichotomized scale based on whether participants reported ever or never experiencing caffeine-induced insomnia. A factor score based on responses to a number of questions regarding normal sleep habits was included as a covariate in the analysis. More than 2 million common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were tested for association with caffeine-induced insomnia. No SNPs reached the genome-wide significance threshold. In the analysis that did not include the insomnia factor score as a covariate, the most significant SNP identified was an intronic SNP in the PRIMA1 gene (P = 1.4 x 10(-)(6), odds ratio = 0.68 [0.53 - 0.89]). An intergenic SNP near the GBP4 gene on chromosome 1 was the most significant upon inclusion of the insomnia factor score into the model (P = 1.9 x 10(-)(6), odds ratio = 0.70 [0.62 - 0.78]). A previously identified association with a polymorphism in the ADORA2A gene was replicated. CONCLUSIONS Several genes have been identified in the study as potentially influencing caffeine-induced insomnia. They will require replication in another sample. The results may have implications for understanding the biologic mechanisms underlying insomnia.

Differences in the Behavior of Luteinizing Hormones of Various Species at the Rat Gonadal Cell Receptor Site

The ability of different LH-like hormones, such as hCG, PMSG/equine (e) CG, ovine (o) LH, eLH, and rat (r) LH, to bind to and stimulate steroidogenesis in two types of rat gonadal cells was studied under the same experimental conditions. In both Leydig and granulosa cells, the maximal steroidogenic responses elicited by optimal doses of different LHs present during a 2-h incubation were comparable. However, if the cells were exposed to the different LHs for a brief period and then subjected to interference with hormone action by removing the unbound hormone from the medium by washing or adding specific antisera, differences were observed in the amount of steroid produced during subsequent incubation in hormone-free medium. Thus, in the case of hCG, either of these procedures carried out at 15 or 30 min of incubation had little inhibitory effect on the amount of steroid produced at 2 h, the latter being similar to that produced by cells incubated in the continued presence of hCG for 2 h. With eCG and rLH, the effect was dramatic, in that there was a total inhibition of subsequent steroidogenic response. In cells exposed to eLH and oLH, inhibition of subsequent steroidogenesis due to either removal of the free-hormone or addition of specific antisera at 15 or 30 min was only partial. Although all of the antisera used were equally effective in inhibiting the steroidogenic response to respective gonadotropins when added along with hormones at the beginning of incubation, differences were observed in the degree of inhibition of this response when the same antisera were added at later times of incubation. Thus, when antisera were added 60 min after the hormone, the inhibition of steroidogenesis was total (100%) for eCG, partial (10–40%) for eLH and oLH, and totally lacking in cells treated with hCG. From this, it appears that hCG bound to the receptor probably becomes unavailable for binding to its antibody with time, while in the case of eCG and other LHs used, the antibody can still inhibit the biological activity of the hormone. Studies with 125I-labeled hormones further supported the conclusion that hCG differs from all other LHs in being most tightly bound and, hence, least dissociable, while eCG and rLH dissociate most readily; oLH and eLH can be placed in between these hormones in the extent of their dissociability. (Endocrinology 116: 597–603,1985)

Activator Protein-1 and Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Interplay : In Vivo & In Vitro Studies

Critical cellular decisions such as should the cell proliferate, migrate or differentiate, are regulated by stimulatory signals from the extracellular environment, like growth factors. These signals are transformed to cellular responses through their binding to specific receptors present at the surface of the recipient cell. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF-R/ErbB) pathway plays key roles in governing these signals to intracellular events and cell-to-cell communication. The EGF-R forms a signaling network that participates in the specification of cell fate and coordinates cell proliferation. Ligand binding triggers receptor dimerization leading to the recruitment of kinases and adaptor proteins. This step simultaneously initiates multiple signal transduction pathways, which result in activation of transcription factors and other target proteins, leading to cellular alterations. It is known that mutations of EGF-R or in the components of these pathways, such as Ras and Raf, are commonly involved in human cancer. The four best characterized signaling pathways induced by EGF-R are the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades (MAPKs), the lipid kinase phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K), a group of transcription factors called Signal Transducers and Activator of Transcription (STAT), and the phospholipase Cγ; (PLCγ) pathways. The activation of each cascade culminates in kinase translocation to the nucleus to stimulate various transcription factors including activator protein 1 (AP-1). AP-1 family proteins are basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors that are implicated in the regulation of a variety of cellular processes (proliferation and survival, growth, differentiation, apoptosis, cell migration, transformation). Therefore, the regulation of AP-1 activity is critical for the decision of cell fate and their deregulated expression is widely associated with many types of cancers, such as breast and prostate cancers. The aims of this study were to characterize the roles of EGF-R signaling during normal development and malignant growth in vitro and in vivo using different cell lines and tissue samples. We show here that EGF-R regulates cell proliferation but is also required for regulation of AP-1 target gene expression in fibroblasts in a MAP-kinase mediated manner. Furthermore, EGF-R signaling is essential for enterocyte proliferation and migration during intestinal maturation. EGF-R signaling network, especially PI3-K-Akt pathway mediated AP-1 activity is involved in cellular survival in response to ionizing radiation. Taken together, these results elucidate the connection of EGF-R and AP-1 in various cellular contexts and show their importance in the regulation of cellular behaviour presenting new treatment cues for intestinal perforations and cancer therapy.

Identification of the semaphorin receptor PLXNA2 as a candidate for susceptibility to schizophrenia

The discovery of genetic factors that contribute to schizophrenia susceptibility is a key challenge in understanding the etiology of this disease. Here, we report the identification of a novel schizophrenia candidate gene on chromosome 1q32, plexin A2 (PLXNA2), in a genome-wide association study using 320 patients with schizophrenia of European descent and 325 matched controls. Over 25,000 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located within approximately 14,000 genes were tested. Out of 62 markers found to be associated with disease status, the most consistent finding was observed for a candidate locus on chromosome 1q32. The marker SNP rs752016 showed suggestive association with schizophrenia (odds ratio (OR) = 1.49, P = 0.006). This result was confirmed in an independent case-control sample of European Americans (combined OR = 1.38, P = 0.035) and similar genetic effects were observed in smaller subsets of Latin Americans (OR = 1.26) and Asian Americans (OR = 1.37). Supporting evidence was also obtained from two family-based collections, one of which reached statistical significance (OR = 2.2, P = 0.02). High-density SNP mapping showed that the region of association spans approximately 60 kb of the PLXNA2 gene. Eight out of 14 SNPs genotyped showed statistically significant differences between cases and controls. These results are in accordance with previous genetic findings that identified chromosome 1q32 as a candidate region for schizophrenia. PLXNA2 is a member of the transmembrane semaphorin receptor family that is involved in axonal guidance during development and may modulate neuronal plasticity and regeneration. The PLXNA2 ligand semaphorin 3A has been shown to be upregulated in the cerebellum of individuals with schizophrenia. These observations, together with the genetic results, make PLXNA2 a likely candidate for the 1q32 schizophrenia susceptibility locus.

Association of a low density lipoprotein receptor microsatellite variant with obesity

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a microsatellite polymorphism located towards the 3' end of the low density lipoprotein receptor gene (LDLR) is associated with obesity. DESIGN: A cross-sectional case-control study. SUBJECTS: One hundred and seven obese individuals, defined as a body mass index (BMI) > or = 26 kg/m2, and 163 lean individuals, defined as a BMI < 26 kg/m2. MEASUREMENTS: BMI, blood pressure, serum lipids, alleles of LDLR microsatellite (106 bp, 108 bp and 112 bp). RESULTS: There was a significant association between variants of the LDLR microsatellite and obesity, in the overall tested population, due to a contributing effect in females (chi 2 = 12.3, P = 0.002), but not in males (chi 2 = 0.3, P = 0.87). In females, individuals with the 106 bp allele were more likely to be lean, while individuals with the 112 bp and/or 108 bp alleles tended to be obese. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that in females, LDLR may play a role in the development of obesity.

Cross-sectional study of a microsatellite marker in the low density lipoprotein receptor gene in obese normotensives

1. The low density lipoprotein receptor is an important regulator of serum cholesterol which may have implications for the development of both hypertension and obesity. In this study, genotypes for a low density lipoprotein receptor gene (LDLR) dinucleotide polymorphism were determined in both lean and obese normotensive populations. 2. In previous cross-sectional association studies an ApaLI and a HincII polymorphism for LDLR were shown to be associated with obesity in essential hypertensives. However, these polymorphisms did not show an association with obesity in normotensives. 3. In contrast, this study reports that preliminary results for an LDLR microsatellite marker, located more towards the 3' end of the gene, show a significant association with obesity in the normotensive population studied. These results indicate that LDLR could play an important role in the development of obesity, which might be independent of hypertension.

Mice lacking the serotonin Htr2B receptor gene present an antipsychotic-sensitive schizophrenic-like phenotype

Impulsivity and hyperactivity share common ground with numerous mental disorders, including schizophrenia. Recently, a population-specific serotonin 2B (5-HT2B) receptor stop codon (ie, HTR2B Q20*) was reported to segregate with severely impulsive individuals, whereas 5-HT2B mutant (Htr2B−/−) mice also showed high impulsivity. Interestingly, in the same cohort, early-onset schizophrenia was more prevalent in HTR2B Q*20 carriers. However, the putative role of 5-HT2B receptor in the neurobiology of schizophrenia has never been investigated. We assessed the effects of the genetic and the pharmacological ablation of 5-HT2B receptors in mice subjected to a comprehensive series of behavioral test screenings for schizophrenic-like symptoms and investigated relevant dopaminergic and glutamatergic neurochemical alterations in the cortex and the striatum. Domains related to the positive, negative, and cognitive symptom clusters of schizophrenia were affected in Htr2B−/− mice, as shown by deficits in sensorimotor gating, in selective attention, in social interactions, and in learning and memory processes. In addition, Htr2B−/− mice presented with enhanced locomotor response to the psychostimulants dizocilpine and amphetamine, and with robust alterations in sleep architecture. Moreover, ablation of 5-HT2B receptors induced a region-selective decrease of dopamine and glutamate concentrations in the dorsal striatum. Importantly, selected schizophrenic-like phenotypes and endophenotypes were rescued by chronic haloperidol treatment. We report herein that 5-HT2B receptor deficiency confers a wide spectrum of antipsychotic-sensitive schizophrenic-like behavioral and psychopharmacological phenotypes in mice and provide first evidence for a role of 5-HT2B receptors in the neurobiology of psychotic disorders

Cross Talk between Receptor Guanylyl Cyclase C and c-src Tyrosine Kinase Regulates Colon Cancer Cell Cytostasis

Increased activation of c-src seen in colorectal cancer is an indicator of a poor clinical prognosis, suggesting that identification of downstream effectors of c-src may lead to new avenues of therapy. Guanylyl cyclase C (GC-C) is a receptor for the gastrointestinal hormones guanylin and uroguanylin and the bacterial heat-stable enterotoxin. Though activation of GC-C by its ligands elevates intracellular cyclic GMP (cGMP) levels and inhibits cell proliferation, its persistent expression in colorectal carcinomas and occult metastases makes it a marker for malignancy. We show here that GC-C is a substrate for inhibitory phosphorylation by c-src, resulting in reduced ligand-mediated cGMP production. Consequently, active c-src in colonic cells can overcome GC-C-mediated control of the cell cycle. Furthermore, docking of the c-src SH2 domain to phosphorylated GC-C results in colocalization and further activation of c-src. We therefore propose a novel feed-forward mechanism of activation of c-src that is induced by cross talk between a receptor GC and a tyrosine kinase. Our findings have important implications in understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the progression and treatment of colorectal cancer.

Inhibitory action of norepinephrine on the induction of tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase by cortisol: Mediation by the I-receptor

Induction of hepatic tryptophan-2,3-dioxygenase in rats by cortisol or corticosterone was inhibited on treatment with norepinephrine. The I-adrenergic blockers showed a small potentiating effect of the norepinephrine-mediated inhibition. The I-adrenergic blockers significantly reversed this inhibition, suggesting that norepinephrine acts Image the I-receptor in inhibition of the cortisol-mediated induction of this enzyme.

Higher-resolution structure of the human insulin receptor ectodomain: Multi-modal inclusion of the insert domain

Insulin receptor (IR) signaling is critical to controlling nutrient uptake and metabolism. However, only a low-resolution (3.8 Å) structure currently exists for the IR ectodomain, with some segments ill-defined or unmodeled due to disorder. Here, we revise this structure using new diffraction data to 3.3 Å resolution that allow improved modeling of the N-linked glycans, the first and third fibronectin type III domains, and the insert domain. A novel haptic interactive molecular dynamics strategy was used to aid fitting to low-resolution electron density maps. The resulting model provides a foundation for investigation of structural transitions in IR upon ligand binding.

The Linker Region in Receptor Guanylyl Cyclases Is a Key Regulatory Module MUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF GUANYLYL CYCLASE C

Receptor guanylyl cyclases are multidomain proteins, and ligand binding to the extracellular domain increases the levels of intracellular cGMP. The intracellular domain of these receptors is composed of a kinase homology domain (KHD), a linker of similar to 70 amino acids, followed by the C-terminal guanylyl cyclase domain. Mechanisms by which these receptors are allosterically regulated by ligand binding to the extracellular domain and ATP binding to the KHD are not completely understood. Here we examine the role of the linker region in receptor guanylyl cyclases by a series of point mutations in receptor guanylyl cyclase C. The linker region is predicted to adopt a coiled coil structure and aid in dimerization, but we find that the effects of mutations neither follow a pattern predicted for a coiled coil peptide nor abrogate dimerization. Importantly, this region is critical for repressing the guanylyl cyclase activity of the receptor in the absence of ligand and permitting ligand-mediated activation of the cyclase domain. Mutant receptors with high basal guanylyl cyclase activity show no further activation in the presence of non-ionic detergents, suggesting that hydrophobic interactions in the basal and inactive conformation of the guanylyl cyclase domain are disrupted by mutation. Equivalent mutations in the linker region of guanylyl cyclase A also elevated the basal activity and abolished ligand-and detergent-mediated activation. We, therefore, have defined a key regulatory role for the linker region of receptor guanylyl cyclases which serves as a transducer of information from the extracellular domain via the KHD to the catalytic domain.