Technology and characterization of GaN-HEMTs devices: high temperature and trapping effects

Los transistores de alta movilidad electrónica basados en GaN han sido objeto de una extensa investigación ya que tanto el GaN como sus aleaciones presentan unas excelentes propiedades eléctricas (alta movilidad, elevada concentración de portadores y campo eléctrico crítico alto). Aunque recientemente se han incluido en algunas aplicaciones comerciales, su expansión en el mercado está condicionada a la mejora de varios asuntos relacionados con su rendimiento y habilidad. Durante esta tesis se han abordado algunos de estos aspectos relevantes; por ejemplo, la fabricación de enhancement mode HEMTs, su funcionamiento a alta temperatura, el auto calentamiento y el atrapamiento de carga. Los HEMTs normalmente apagado o enhancement mode han atraído la atención de la comunidad científica dedicada al desarrollo de circuitos amplificadores y conmutadores de potencia, ya que su utilización disminuiría significativamente el consumo de potencia; además de requerir solamente una tensión de alimentación negativa, y reducir la complejidad del circuito y su coste. Durante esta tesis se han evaluado varias técnicas utilizadas para la fabricación de estos dispositivos: el ataque húmedo para conseguir el gate-recess en heterostructuras de InAl(Ga)N/GaN; y tratamientos basados en flúor (plasma CF4 e implantación de F) de la zona debajo de la puerta. Se han llevado a cabo ataques húmedos en heteroestructuras de InAl(Ga)N crecidas sobre sustratos de Si, SiC y zafiro. El ataque completo de la barrera se consiguió únicamente en las muestras con sustrato de Si. Por lo tanto, se puede deducir que la velocidad de ataque depende de la densidad de dislocaciones presentes en la estructura, ya que el Si presenta un peor ajuste del parámetro de red con el GaN. En relación a los tratamientos basados en flúor, se ha comprobado que es necesario realizar un recocido térmico después de la fabricación de la puerta para recuperar la heteroestructura de los daños causados durante dichos tratamientos. Además, el estudio de la evolución de la tensión umbral con el tiempo de recocido ha demostrado que en los HEMTs tratados con plasma ésta tiende a valores más negativos al aumentar el tiempo de recocido. Por el contrario, la tensión umbral de los HEMTs implantados se desplaza hacia valores más positivos, lo cual se atribuye a la introducción de iones de flúor a niveles más profundos de la heterostructura. Los transistores fabricados con plasma presentaron mejor funcionamiento en DC a temperatura ambiente que los implantados. Su estudio a alta temperatura ha revelado una reducción del funcionamiento de todos los dispositivos con la temperatura. Los valores iniciales de corriente de drenador y de transconductancia medidos a temperatura ambiente se recuperaron después del ciclo térmico, por lo que se deduce que dichos efectos térmicos son reversibles. Se han estudiado varios aspectos relacionados con el funcionamiento de los HEMTs a diferentes temperaturas. En primer lugar, se han evaluado las prestaciones de dispositivos de AlGaN/GaN sobre sustrato de Si con diferentes caps: GaN, in situ SiN e in situ SiN/GaN, desde 25 K hasta 550 K. Los transistores con in situ SiN presentaron los valores más altos de corriente drenador, transconductancia, y los valores más bajos de resistencia-ON, así como las mejores características en corte. Además, se ha confirmado que dichos dispositivos presentan gran robustez frente al estrés térmico. En segundo lugar, se ha estudiado el funcionamiento de transistores de InAlN/GaN con diferentes diseños y geometrías. Dichos dispositivos presentaron una reducción casi lineal de los parámetros en DC en el rango de temperaturas de 25°C hasta 225°C. Esto se debe principalmente a la dependencia térmica de la movilidad electrónica, y también a la reducción de la drift velocity con la temperatura. Además, los transistores con mayores longitudes de puerta mostraron una mayor reducción de su funcionamiento, lo cual se atribuye a que la drift velocity disminuye más considerablemente con la temperatura cuando el campo eléctrico es pequeño. De manera similar, al aumentar la distancia entre la puerta y el drenador, el funcionamiento del HEMT presentó una mayor reducción con la temperatura. Por lo tanto, se puede deducir que la degradación del funcionamiento de los HEMTs causada por el aumento de la temperatura depende tanto de la longitud de la puerta como de la distancia entre la puerta y el drenador. Por otra parte, la alta densidad de potencia generada en la región activa de estos transistores conlleva el auto calentamiento de los mismos por efecto Joule, lo cual puede degradar su funcionamiento y Habilidad. Durante esta tesis se ha desarrollado un simple método para la determinación de la temperatura del canal basado en medidas eléctricas. La aplicación de dicha técnica junto con la realización de simulaciones electrotérmicas han posibilitado el estudio de varios aspectos relacionados con el autocalentamiento. Por ejemplo, se han evaluado sus efectos en dispositivos sobre Si, SiC, y zafiro. Los transistores sobre SiC han mostrado menores efectos gracias a la mayor conductividad térmica del SiC, lo cual confirma el papel clave que desempeña el sustrato en el autocalentamiento. Se ha observado que la geometría del dispositivo tiene cierta influencia en dichos efectos, destacando que la distribución del calor generado en la zona del canal depende de la distancia entre la puerta y el drenador. Además, se ha demostrado que la temperatura ambiente tiene un considerable impacto en el autocalentamiento, lo que se atribuye principalmente a la dependencia térmica de la conductividad térmica de las capas y sustrato que forman la heterostructura. Por último, se han realizado numerosas medidas en pulsado para estudiar el atrapamiento de carga en HEMTs sobre sustratos de SiC con barreras de AlGaN y de InAlN. Los resultados obtenidos en los transistores con barrera de AlGaN han presentado una disminución de la corriente de drenador y de la transconductancia sin mostrar un cambio en la tensión umbral. Por lo tanto, se puede deducir que la posible localización de las trampas es la región de acceso entre la puerta y el drenador. Por el contrario, la reducción de la corriente de drenador observada en los dispositivos con barrera de InAlN llevaba asociado un cambio significativo en la tensión umbral, lo que implica la existencia de trampas situadas en la zona debajo de la puerta. Además, el significativo aumento del valor de la resistencia-ON y la degradación de la transconductancia revelan la presencia de trampas en la zona de acceso entre la puerta y el drenador. La evaluación de los efectos del atrapamiento de carga en dispositivos con diferentes geometrías ha demostrado que dichos efectos son menos notables en aquellos transistores con mayor longitud de puerta o mayor distancia entre puerta y drenador. Esta dependencia con la geometría se puede explicar considerando que la longitud y densidad de trampas de la puerta virtual son independientes de las dimensiones del dispositivo. Finalmente se puede deducir que para conseguir el diseño óptimo durante la fase de diseño no sólo hay que tener en cuenta la aplicación final sino también la influencia que tiene la geometría en los diferentes aspectos estudiados (funcionamiento a alta temperatura, autocalentamiento, y atrapamiento de carga). ABSTRACT GaN-based high electron mobility transistors have been under extensive research due to the excellent electrical properties of GaN and its related alloys (high carrier concentration, high mobility, and high critical electric field). Although these devices have been recently included in commercial applications, some performance and reliability issues need to be addressed for their expansion in the market. Some of these relevant aspects have been studied during this thesis; for instance, the fabrication of enhancement mode HEMTs, the device performance at high temperature, the self-heating and the charge trapping. Enhancement mode HEMTs have become more attractive mainly because their use leads to a significant reduction of the power consumption during the stand-by state. Moreover, they enable the fabrication of simpler power amplifier circuits and high-power switches because they allow the elimination of negativepolarity voltage supply, reducing significantly the circuit complexity and system cost. In this thesis, different techniques for the fabrication of these devices have been assessed: wet-etching for achieving the gate-recess in InAl(Ga)N/GaN devices and two different fluorine-based treatments (CF4 plasma and F implantation). Regarding the wet-etching, experiments have been carried out in InAl(Ga)N/GaN grown on different substrates: Si, sapphire, and SiC. The total recess of the barrier was achieved after 3 min of etching in devices grown on Si substrate. This suggests that the etch rate can critically depend on the dislocations present in the structure, since the Si exhibits the highest mismatch to GaN. Concerning the fluorine-based treatments, a post-gate thermal annealing was required to recover the damages caused to the structure during the fluorine-treatments. The study of the threshold voltage as a function of this annealing time has revealed that in the case of the plasma-treated devices it become more negative with the time increase. On the contrary, the threshold voltage of implanted HEMTs showed a positive shift when the annealing time was increased, which is attributed to the deep F implantation profile. Plasma-treated HEMTs have exhibited better DC performance at room temperature than the implanted devices. Their study at high temperature has revealed that their performance decreases with temperature. The initial performance measured at room temperature was recovered after the thermal cycle regardless of the fluorine treatment; therefore, the thermal effects were reversible. Thermal issues related to the device performance at different temperature have been addressed. Firstly, AlGaN/GaN HEMTs grown on Si substrate with different cap layers: GaN, in situ SiN, or in situ SiN/GaN, have been assessed from 25 K to 550 K. In situ SiN cap layer has been demonstrated to improve the device performance since HEMTs with this cap layer have exhibited the highest drain current and transconductance values, the lowest on-resistance, as well as the best off-state characteristics. Moreover, the evaluation of thermal stress impact on the device performance has confirmed the robustness of devices with in situ cap. Secondly, the high temperature performance of InAlN/GaN HEMTs with different layouts and geometries have been assessed. The devices under study have exhibited an almost linear reduction of the main DC parameters operating in a temperature range from room temperature to 225°C. This was mainly due to the thermal dependence of the electron mobility, and secondly to the drift velocity decrease with temperature. Moreover, HEMTs with large gate length values have exhibited a great reduction of the device performance. This was attributed to the greater decrease of the drift velocity for low electric fields. Similarly, the increase of the gate-to-drain distance led to a greater reduction of drain current and transconductance values. Therefore, this thermal performance degradation has been found to be dependent on both the gate length and the gate-to-drain distance. It was observed that the very high power density in the active region of these transistors leads to Joule self-heating, resulting in an increase of the device temperature, which can degrade the device performance and reliability. A simple electrical method have been developed during this work to determine the channel temperature. Furthermore, the application of this technique together with the performance of electro-thermal simulations have enabled the evaluation of different aspects related to the self-heating. For instance, the influence of the substrate have been confirmed by the study of devices grown on Si, SiC, and Sapphire. HEMTs grown on SiC substrate have been confirmed to exhibit the lowest self-heating effects thanks to its highest thermal conductivity. In addition to this, the distribution of the generated heat in the channel has been demonstrated to be dependent on the gate-to-drain distance. Besides the substrate and the geometry of the device, the ambient temperature has also been found to be relevant for the self-heating effects, mainly due to the temperature-dependent thermal conductivity of the layers and the substrate. Trapping effects have been evaluated by means of pulsed measurements in AlGaN and InAIN barrier devices. AlGaN barrier HEMTs have exhibited a de crease in drain current and transconductance without measurable threshold voltage change, suggesting the location of the traps in the gate-to-drain access region. On the contrary, InAIN barrier devices have showed a drain current associated with a positive shift of threshold voltage, which indicated that the traps were possibly located under the gate region. Moreover, a significant increase of the ON-resistance as well as a transconductance reduction were observed, revealing the presence of traps on the gate-drain access region. On the other hand, the assessment of devices with different geometries have demonstrated that the trapping effects are more noticeable in devices with either short gate length or the gate-to-drain distance. This can be attributed to the fact that the length and the trap density of the virtual gate are independent on the device geometry. Finally, it can be deduced that besides the final application requirements, the influence of the device geometry on the performance at high temperature, on the self-heating, as well as on the trapping effects need to be taken into account during the device design stage to achieve the optimal layout.

Temperature and precipitation effects on wheat yield across a European transect: a crop model ensemble analysis using impact response surfaces

This study explored the utility of the impact response surface (IRS) approach for investigating model ensemble crop yield responses under a large range of changes in climate. IRSs of spring and winter wheat Triticum aestivum yields were constructed from a 26-member ensemble of process-based crop simulation models for sites in Finland, Germany and Spain across a latitudinal transect. The sensitivity of modelled yield to systematic increments of changes in temperature (-2 to +9°C) and precipitation (-50 to +50%) was tested by modifying values of baseline (1981 to 2010) daily weather, with CO2 concentration fixed at 360 ppm. The IRS approach offers an effective method of portraying model behaviour under changing climate as well as advantages for analysing, comparing and presenting results from multi-model ensemble simulations. Though individual model behaviour occasionally departed markedly from the average, ensemble median responses across sites and crop varieties indicated that yields decline with higher temperatures and decreased precipitation and increase with higher precipitation. Across the uncertainty ranges defined for the IRSs, yields were more sensitive to temperature than precipitation changes at the Finnish site while sensitivities were mixed at the German and Spanish sites. Precipitation effects diminished under higher temperature changes. While the bivariate and multi-model characteristics of the analysis impose some limits to interpretation, the IRS approach nonetheless provides additional insights into sensitivities to inter-model and inter-annual variability. Taken together, these sensitivities may help to pinpoint processes such as heat stress, vernalisation or drought effects requiring refinement in future model development.

Temperature and length scale dependence of hydrophobic effects and their possible implications for protein folding

The Lum–Chandler–Weeks theory of hydrophobicity [Lum, K., Chandler, D. & Weeks, J. D. (1999) J. Phys. Chem. 103, 4570–4577] is applied to treat the temperature dependence of hydrophobic solvation in water. The application illustrates how the temperature dependence for hydrophobic surfaces extending less than 1 nm differs significantly from that for surfaces extending more than 1 nm. The latter is the result of water depletion, a collective effect, that appears at length scales of 1 nm and larger. Because of the contrasting behaviors at small and large length scales, hydrophobicity by itself can explain the variable behavior of entropies of protein folding.

Studies on the effects of salinity and temperature on the commercial shrimp, Penaeus aztecus Ives : with special regard to survival limits, growth, oxygen consumption and ionic regulation /

"March 1974."

Oxygen consumption by the isolated rat liver : effects of hematocrit, temperature, perfusion rate and oxygen tension /

Reproduced by Armed Services Technical Information Agency, Arlington, Va.

Proceedings. Water temperature: influences, effects and control.

Mode of access: Internet.

Research and development on the effects of high pressure and temperature on various elements and binary alloys,

"Materials Central, Contract no. 33(616)-5995. Project no. 7351.

Effects of potential models on the adsorption of ethane and ethylene on graphitized thermal carbon black. Study of two-dimensional critical temperature and isosteric heat versus loading

Adsorption of ethylene and ethane on graphitized thermal carbon black and in slit pores whose walls are composed of graphene layers is studied in detail to investigate the packing efficiency, the two-dimensional critical temperature, and the variation of the isosteric heat of adsorption with loading and temperature. Here we used a Monte Carlo simulation method with a grand canonical Monte Carlo ensemble. A number of two-center Lennard-Jones (LJ) potential models are investigated to study the impact of the choice of potential models in the description of adsorption behavior. We chose two 2C-LJ potential models in our investigation of the (i) UA-TraPPE-LJ model of Martin and Siepmann (J. Phys. Chem. B 1998,102, 25692577) for ethane and Wick et al. (J. Phys. Chem. B 2000,104, 8008-8016) for ethylene and (ii) AUA4-LJ model of Ungerer et al. (J. Chem. Phys. 2000,112, 5499-5510) for ethane and Bourasseau et al. (J. Chem. Phys. 2003, 118, 3020-3034) for ethylene. These models are used to study the adsorption of ethane and ethylene on graphitized thermal carbon black. It is found that the solid-fluid binary interaction parameter is a function of adsorbate and temperature, and the adsorption isotherms and heat of adsorption are well described by both the UA-TraPPE and AUA models, although the UA-TraPPE model performs slightly better. However, the local distributions predicted by these two models are slightly different. These two models are used to explore the two-dimensional condensation for the graphitized thermal carbon black, and these values are 110 K for ethylene and 120 K for ethane.

Effects of temperature, salinity, desiccation and chemical treatments on egg embryonation and hatching success of Benedenia seriolae (Monogenea : Capsalidae), a parasite of farmed Seriola spp.

The effects of temperature and salinity on the embryonation period and hatching success of eggs of Benedenia seriolae were investigated. Temperature strongly influenced embryonation period; eggs first hatched 5 days after laying at 28 degreesC and 16 days after laying at 14 degreesC. The relationship between temperature and embryonation period is described by quadratic regression equations for time to first and last hatching. Hatching success was >70% for B. seriolae eggs incubated at temperatures from 14 to 28 degreesC. However, no B. seriolae eggs embryonated and hatched at 30 degreesC and

Effects of high temperature on the growth and composition of sugarcane internodes

Sugarcane grown in the Ord River district of Western Australia has lower sucrose content than expected from earlier trials and experience in other irrigated districts. High temperatures have been hypothesised as a possible cause. The effects of high temperature (above 32 degrees C) on growth and carbon partitioning were investigated. A temperature regime of (25-38 degrees C) was compared with (23-33 degrees C). In one experiment, 7-month-old plants of cvv. Q117 and Q158 were subjected to the treatments for 2 months. In another experiment, the plants were allowed to regrow (ratoon) for 6 months. In both experiments, the higher temperature resulted in more, shorter internodes and higher moisture content. Most internodes from plants in the higher temperature treatment had lower sucrose content than internodes from the lower temperature. On a dry mass basis the internodes from the plants in the higher temperature had proportionately more fibre and hexoses but lower sucrose. Combined with an increased number of nodes in a stem of similar or shorter length this would result in higher stalk fibre and lower sucrose content. The data provided evidence that sugarcane partitions less carbon to stored sucrose when grown under high compared with low temperatures. The two cultivars partitioned carbon between soluble (sugars) and insoluble (fibre) fractions to different degrees. These experiments also indicate that the current models describing leaf appearance and perhaps sugarcane growth at temperatures above 32 degrees C, in general, need revision.

The effects of temperature and salinity on Acacia harpophylla (brigalow) (Mimosaceae) germination

Acacia harpophylla F. Muell. (brigalow) used to naturally occur over a range of about 50 000 km(2) in Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. Large scale clearing for agriculture has reduced the area to less than 20 000 km(2) and it is estimated that 20-25% of vertebrate fauna living in brigalow communities will become locally extinct as a result of the current clearing induced loss of habitat. Some coal mining companies in central Queensland have become interested in providing habitat for the endangered bridle nail-tailed wallaby that lives in brigalow vegetation. However, there is little known about establishment techniques for brigalow on mine sites and other disturbed ground; an understanding of brigalow biology and ecology is required to assist in the conservation of this threatened vegetation community and for re-creation of bridled nail-tail wallaby habitat in the post mining landscape. Brigalow is an unusual species of Acacia because it is not hard-seeded and germinates readily without the need to break seed-coat imposed dormancy. Germination trials were undertaken to test the ability of brigalow seed to germinate with a range of temperatures and salinity levels similar to those experienced in coal mine spoil. Optimum germination was found to occur at temperatures from 15 to 38 degrees C and no germination was recorded at 45 degrees C. Brigalow was very tolerant of high salt levels and germinated at percentages greater than 50% up to the highest salinity tested, 30 dS/m. Germination of greater than 90% occurred up to an electrical conductivity of 20 dS/m. The results indicate brigalow seed can be sown in summer when rains are most likely to occur, however, shading of the seed with extra soil or mulch may ensure the ground surface does not become too hot for germination. Because of its ability to germinate at high salinity levels, brigalow may be suitable for use in saline mine wastes which are common on sites to be rehabilitated after mining.

Entropy generation for microscale forced convection: effects of different thermal boundary conditions, velocity slip, temperature jump, viscous dissipation, and duct geometry

This work presents closed form solutions for fully developed temperature distribution and entropy generation due to forced convection in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) in the Slip-flow regime, for which the Knudsen number lies within the range 0.001