Effects of age condition on the distribution and integrity of inorganic fillers in dental resin composites

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Preparação e caracterização óptica de filmes híbridos dopados com o azocorante Disperse Red 1

The Sol-gel process has facilitated the processing of Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials with several scientific applications and technologies. The hybrid combine the advantages of the Sol-gel process with specific characteristics of organic polymers, allowing processing of thin films without fractures or fissures. The incorporation of azo dyes in polymer matrices has been widely used in the investigation of optical properties. The azo dye Disperse Red (DR1) presents optical alterations when exposed to visible or ultraviolet light. The alterations occur due to transitions of their isomers, trans and cis, caused by photoisomerization, due to electronic transitions of azo group (-N=N-), presenting photochromic and/or photorefractive effects. The hybrid system used in this work is the precursor 3- Glycidoxypropyl-Trimethoxi-silane (GPTS), the Tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) and DR1 as a dopant. The characterizations were performed using absorption spectroscopy UV-Vis which allowed the identification of the absorption bands and its variations when the samples were treated thermally and/or illuminated by ultraviolet light

Avaliação dos preparos da superfície cerâmica para a colagem de acessórios ortodônticos

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of two conditioning methods used to enhance the shear strength of orthodontic brackets bonded to porcelain surfaces. A total of 18 feldspathic specimens were used. The specimens were divided randomly into two groups (n = 9): group free silane, the porcelain specimens were etched with hidrofuoric acid 10% (Acid Gel-Maquira) for 4 minutes followed by adhesive-primer (Transbond XT) and the metallic brackets (Morelli Roth Light .022" x .030") were bonded with a light-cured microfilled resin (Transbond XT Light Cure Orthodontic Adhesive); group silane, the porcelain specimens were etched with hidrofuoric acid 10% (Acid Gel-Maquira) for 4 minutes followed by silane (Silano Ângelus) for 1 minute, adhesive-primer (Transbond XT) and the metallic brackets (Morelli Roth Light .022" x .030") were bonded with a light-cured microfilled resin (Transbond XT Light Cure Orthodontic Adhesive). All specimens were stored in solution of artificial saliva at ambient temperature for 24 hours. The debonding was done with shear strength through a universal testing machine (DL 500-Emic) calibrated with a fixed speed of 1mm/minute. Statical analysis was performed using the Student t test. The results indicated that in the free silane group the mean bond strength was 9,97 MPA, significantly lower than the silane group, that was 12,38 MPa (p < 0,05). The both groups were effective for bonding, although the silane group had the highest bond strength values.

Efeitos de lasers de alta potência na superfície de cerâmicas vítreas de dissilicato de lítio e sua resistência de união à dentina humana

Pós-graduação em Odontologia Restauradora - ICT

Efeitos de lasers de alta potência na superfície de cerâmicas vítreas de dissilicato de lítio e sua resistência de união à dentina humana

Pós-graduação em Odontologia Restauradora - ICT

Ceramic Primer Heat-Treatment Effect on Resin Cement/Y-TZP Bond Strength

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of different heat-treatment strategies for a ceramic primer on the shear bond strength of a 10-methacryloyloxydecyl-dihydrogen-phosphate (MDP)-based resin cement to a yttrium-stabilized tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (Y-TZP) ceramic. Specimens measuring 4.5 x 3.5 x 4.5 mm(3) were produced from Y-TZP presintered cubes and embedded in polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Following finishing, the specimens were cleaned using an ultrasound device and distilled water and randomly divided into 10 experimental groups (n=14) according to the heat treatment of the ceramic primer and aging condition. The strategies used for the experimental groups were: GC (control), without primer; G20, primer application at ambient temperature (20 degrees C); G45, primer application + heat treatment at 45 degrees C; G79, primer application + heat treatment at 79 degrees C; and G100, primer application + heat treatment at 100 degrees C. The specimens from the aging groups were submitted to thermal cycling (6000 cycles, 5 degrees C/55 degrees C, 30 seconds per bath) after 24 hours. A cylinder of MDP-based resin cement (2.4 mm in diameter) was constructed on the ceramic surface of the specimens of each experimental group and stored for 24 hours at 37 degrees C. The specimens were submitted to a shear bond strength test (n=14). Thermal gravimetric analysis was performed on the ceramic primer. The data obtained were statistically analyzed by two-way analysis of variance and the Tukey test (alpha=0.05). The experimental group G79 without aging (7.23 +/- 2.87 MPa) presented a significantly higher mean than the other experimental groups without aging (GC: 2.81 +/- 1.5 MPa; G20: 3.38 +/- 2.21 MPa; G100: 3.96 +/- 1.57 MPa), showing no difference from G45 only (G45: 6 +/- 3.63 MPa). All specimens of the aging groups debonded during thermocycling and were considered to present zero bond strength for the statistical analyses. In conclusion, heat treatment of the metal/zirconia primer improved bond strength under the initial condition but did not promote stable bonding under the aging condition.

Atmospheric corrosion of quaternary bronzes (Cu-Sn-Zn-Pb): laboratory tests (accelerated ageing in wet & dry conditions)and field studies (the Bottego monument in Parma, Italy).

The interactions between outdoor bronzes and the environment, which lead to bronze corrosion, require a better understanding in order to design effective conservation strategies in the Cultural Heritage field. In the present work, investigations on real patinas of the outdoor monument to Vittorio Bottego (Parma, Italy) and laboratory studies on accelerated corrosion testing of inhibited (by silane-based films, with and without ceria nanoparticles) and non-inhibited quaternary bronzes are reported and discussed. In particular, a wet&dry ageing method was used both for testing the efficiency of the inhibitor and for patinating bronze coupons before applying the inhibitor. A wide range of spectroscopic techniques has been used, for characterizing the core metal (SEM+EDS, XRF, AAS), the corroded surfaces (SEM+EDS, portable XRF, micro-Raman, ATR-IR, Py-GC-MS) and the ageing solutions (AAS). The main conclusions were: 1. The investigations on the Bottego monument confirmed the differentiation of the corrosion products as a function of the exposure geometry, already observed in previous works, further highlighting the need to take into account the different surface features when selecting conservation procedures such as the application of inhibitors (i.e. the relative Sn enrichment in unsheltered areas requires inhibitors which effectively interact not only with Cu but also with Sn). 2. The ageing (pre-patination) cycle on coupons was able to reproduce the relative Sn enrichment that actually happens in real patinated surfaces, making the bronze specimens representative of the real support for bronze inhibitors. 3. The non-toxic silane-based inhibitors display a good protective efficiency towards pre-patinated surfaces, differently from other widely used inhibitors such as benzotriazole (BTA) and its derivatives. 4. The 3-mercapto-propyl-trimethoxy-silane (PropS-SH) additivated with CeO2 nanoparticles generally offered a better corrosion protection than PropS-SH.

Biofilms on exposed monumental stones: mechanism of formation and development of new control methods

Within the stone monumental artefacts artistic fountains are extremely favorable to formation of biofilms, giving rise to biodegradation processes related with physical-chemical and visual aspect alterations, because of their particular exposure conditions. Microbial diversity of five fountains (two from Spain and three from Italy) was investigated. It was observed an ample similarity between the biodiversity of monumental stones reported in literature and that one found in studied fountains. Mechanical procedures and toxic chemical products are usually employed to remove such phototrophic patinas. Alternative methods based on natural antifouling substances are recently experimented in the marine sector, due to their very low environmental impact and for the bio settlement prevention on partially immersed structures of ships. In the present work groups of antibiofouling agents (ABAs) were selected from literature for their ability to interfere, at molecular level, with the microbial communication system “quorum sensing”, inhibiting the initial phase of biofilm formation. The efficacy of some natural antibiofoulants agents (ABAs) with terrestrial (Capsaicine - CS, Cinnamaldehyde - CI) and marine origin (Zosteric Acid - ZA, poly-Alkyl Pyridinium Salts – pAPS and Ceramium botryocarpum extract - CBE), incorporated into two commercial coatings (Silres BS OH 100 - S and Wacker Silres BS 290 - W) commonly used in stone conservation procedures were evaluated. The formation of phototrophic biofilms in laboratory conditions (on Carrara marble specimens and Sierra Elvira stone) and on two monumental fountains (Tacca’s Fountain 2 - Florence, Italy and Fountain from Patio de la Lindaraja - Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain) has been investigated in the presence or absence of these natural antifouling agents. The natural antibiofouling agents, at tested concentrations, demonstrated a certain inhibitory effect. The silane-siloxane based silicone coating (W) mixing with ABAs was more suitable with respect to ethyl silicate coating (S) and proved efficacy against biofilm formation only when incompletely cured. The laboratory results indicated a positive action in inhibiting the patina formation, especially for poly-alkyl pyridinium salts, zosteric acid and cinnamaldehyde, while on site tests revealed a good effect for zosteric acid.

Untersuchung molekularer Erkennungsreaktionen mit einem integriert-optischen Mach-Zehnder-Interferometer

Abstract (deutsch)Zielsetzung des Dissertationsvorhabens war die Beobachtung und Analyse von Gast-Wirt-Wechselwirkungen an oxidischen Oberflächen. Einer der Wechselwirkungspartner sollte dabei auf der Oberfläche immobilisiert, der andere in wäßriger Lösung darüber vorliegen.Eine empfindliche und oberflächensensitive Methode zur Beobachtung der Anlagerung unmarkierter Moleküle ist die Wellenleiterspektroskopie, insbesondere mit dem hier verwendeten und weiterentwickelten integriert-optischen Mach-Zehnder-Interferometer in Siliziumtechnik (Siliziumoxynitrid auf oxidiertem Siliziumwafer). Mit Hilfe des Interferometers wurden unterschiedliche Wirt-Gast-Systeme untersucht. Grundlage der Immobilisierung war jeweils die Funktionalisierung der Sensoroberfläche durch Selbstadsorption von Organosilanen. Durch unterschiedliche Organosilane, die zum Teil im Rahmen dieser Arbeit synthetisiert wurden, ließen sich die Wirtmoleküle beta-Cyclodextrin, Streptavidin, sowie unterschiedliche monoklonale Antikörperfragmente immobilisieren.- Der Einfluß der Oberfläche auf die Bindungsstärke des Wirtmoleküls beta-Cyclodextrin und unterschiedlicher Gastmoleküle wurde konzentrationsabhängig untersucht.- Silan-Biotinderivate mit unterschiedlicher Streptavidin-Affinität wurden an die Oberfläche immobilisiert und die Adsorption von Streptavidin an die Biotinderivate beobachtet. Dabei konnte unter anderem nachgewiesen werden, daß das Streptavidinadsorbat gequollen ist.- Als mögliche Anwendung wurde geprüft, ob das vorgestellte Interferometer durch die Funktionalisierung mit Antikörperfragmenten als Biosensor in Frage kommt. Es konnte nachgewiesen werden, daß sich Antikörper auf der Sensoroberfläche immobilisieren lassen und Antigene spezifisch an diese Antikörper adsorbieren.

Synthese und Eigenschaften Silizium-verknüpfter Oligo(phenylenvinylen)e

Im Vordergrund der vorliegenden Arbeit stand die Synthese konjugierter Oligomere und Polymere vom Phenylenvinylen-Typ, die Elektronenakzeptorsubstituenten tragen, sowie die Darstellung von Oligo(phenylenvinylen)en mit reaktiven Alkoxysilylgruppen, die durch Hydrolyse und Polykondensation zu amorphen und filmbildenden Materialien mit definierten Chromophoren umgewandelt werden können.Der Aufbau von Oligo(phenylenvinylen)en (OPVs) und Poly(phenylenvinylen)en (PPVs) mit Elektronenakzeptoren an den aromatischen Kernen wurde über die Heck-Reaktion substituierter Divinylaromaten mit Dibromaromaten durchgeführt. Dazu wurde eine einfache Synthese von Divinylaromaten mit Elektronenakzeptor-substituenten über die zweifache Vinylierung der 1,4-Dibromaromaten mit Ethen bei erhöhtem Druck entwickelt.OPVs haben sich als Emitter in lichtemittierenden Dioden (LEDs) bewährt, ein zentrales Problem bei der Verwendung wohldefinierter niedermolekularer Verbindungen ist deren Kristallisationstendenz. Eine hier angewendete Strategie zur Unterdrückung der Rekristallisation beinhaltet die Verknüpfung stilbenoider Chromophore über ein gemeinsames Silizium-Atom, zu dreidimensionalen Verbindungen. Alternativ können durch die Verknüpfung definierter Chromophore mit Alkoxysilanen Monomere erzeugt werden, die für den Aufbau von Kammpolymeren mit Polysiloxanhauptkette oder von Siloxan-Netzwerken genutzt werden können, um amorphe und filmbildende Materialien aufzubauen. Die Darstellung der Tetrakis-OPV-silane wurde über Horner-Olefinierungen stilbenoider Aldehyde mit einem tetraedrischen Phosphonester mit Si-Zentralatom durchgeführt. Die Verknüpfung stilbenoider Chromophore mit Alkoxysilanen zu polykondensierbaren Monomeren erfolgte über Heck-Reaktion oder gekreuzte Metathese Reaktionen. Eine Verknüpfung über flexible Spacer wird durch Kondensation der Oligostyrylbenzaldehyde mit Aminopropylethoxysilanen zu Schiffschen Basen und deren Reduktion mit Cyanoborhydrid zu sekundären Aminen erzeugt. Die Chromophore, OPVs oder Diaryloxadiazole, mit Kieselsäureestergruppen lassen sich durch saure Hydrolyse und Kondensation zu gut löslichen, fluoreszierenden Oligomeren umwandeln, die entweder ringöffnend polymerisierbar oder zu unlöslichen Filmen vernetzbar sind.

Synthesis and characterisation of photoreactive silanes for the self-assembly on functionalised silica surfaces

The aim of this thesis was to investigate novel techniques to create complex hierarchical chemical patterns on silica surfaces with micro to nanometer sized features. These surfaces were used for a site-selective assembly of colloidal particles and oligonucleotides. To do so, functionalised alkoxysilanes (commercial and synthesised ones) were deposited onto planar silica surfaces. The functional groups can form reversible attractive interactions with the complementary surface layers of the opposing objects that need to be assembled. These interactions determine the final location and density of the objects onto the surface. Photolithographically patterned silica surfaces were modified with commercial silanes, in order to create hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions on the surface. Assembly of hydrophobic silica particles onto these surfaces was investigated and finally, pH and charge effects on the colloidal assembly were analysed. In the second part of this thesis the concept of novel, "smart" alkoxysilanes is introduced that allows parallel surface activation and patterning in a one-step irradiation process. These novel species bear a photoreactive head-group in a protected form. Surface layers made from these molecules can be irradiated through a mask to remove the protecting group from selected regions and thus generate lateral chemical patterns of active and inert regions on the substrate. The synthesis of an azide-reactive alkoxysilane was successfully accomplished. Silanisation conditions were carefully optimised as to guarantee a smooth surface layer, without formation of micellar clusters. NMR and DLS experiments corroborated the absence of clusters when using neither water nor NaOH as catalysts during hydrolysis, but only the organic solvent itself. Upon irradiation of the azide layer, the resulting nitrene may undergo a variety of reactions depending on the irradiation conditions. Contact angle measurements demonstrated that the irradiated surfaces were more hydrophilic than the non-irradiated azide layer and therefore the formation of an amine upon irradiation was postulated. Successful photoactivation could be demonstrated using condensation patterns, which showed a change in wettability on the wafer surface upon irradiation. Colloidal deposition with COOH functionalised particles further underlined the formation of more hydrophilic species. Orthogonal photoreactive silanes are described in the third part of this thesis. The advantage of orthogonal photosensitive silanes is the possibility of having a coexistence of chemical functionalities homogeneously distributed in the same layer, by using appropriate protecting groups. For this purpose, a 3',5'-dimethoxybenzoin protected carboxylic acid silane was successfully synthesised and the kinetics of its hydrolysis and condensation in solution were analysed in order to optimise the silanisation conditions. This compound was used together with a nitroveratryl protected amino silane to obtain bicomponent surface layers. The optimum conditions for an orthogonal deprotection of surfaces modified with this two groups were determined. A 2-step deprotection process through a mask generated a complex pattern on the substrate by activating two different chemistries at different sites. This was demonstrated by colloidal adsorption and fluorescence labelling of the resulting substrates. Moreover, two different single stranded oligodeoxynucleotides were immobilised onto the two different activated areas and then hybrid captured with their respective complementary, fluorescent labelled strand. Selective hybridisation could be shown, although non-selective adsorption issues need to be resolved, making this technique attractive for possible DNA microarrays.

Oligosilyl- und Stannylderivate des Kupfers

Benzyltris(trimethylsilyl)silan konnte durch Reaktion mit Lithiummethanid oder Alkalimetall-tert-butanolaten (M-OtBu, M = Na, K, Rb, Cs) in die entsprechenden Alkalimetall-benzylbis(trimethylsilyl)silanide (M-Bnz, Bnz = Si(SiMe3)2CH2Ph) überführt werden. Die Strukturen dieser Verbindungen weisen viele Gemeinsamkeiten mit den entsprechenden Hypersilylverbindungen (Hypersilyl bzw. Hyp = Si(SiMe3)3) auf. Mit Ausnahme der Lithiumverbindung weisen die Natrium-, Kalium- und Rubidiumverbindungen jedoch noch intramolekulare Wechselwirkungen des Benzylrestes mit den Alkalimetallkationen auf. Die Benzylbis(trimethylsilyl)silanide der Alkalimetalle eignen sich zur Darstellung von Kupfersilylverbindungen. So konnten heteroleptische Cuprate (Bnz-Cu-OtBu-, Bnz-Cu-Hyp-) und monoleptische Cuprate (CuBnz2-), aber auch das ungeladene Kupfer-benzyl-bis(trimethylsilyl)silanid hergestellt werden. Auf analoge Weise wurde versucht, Alkalimetall- und Kupferverbindungen des Phenylbis(trimethylsilyl)silanides herzustellen. Da aber bereits bei der Synthese der Alkalimetallverbindungen die entsprechenden Hypersilanide als schwer abtrennbare Nebenprodukte entstanden, konnten keine ausführlichen Untersuchungen angestellt werden. Es konnten die Natrium- und Kaliumsalze des Dihypersilylcuprates hergestellt und strukturell charakterisiert werden. Die Natriumverbindung wurde nur als Nebenprodukt einer Reaktion von Kupfer(I)-cyanid mit Natriumhypersilanid erhalten, die entsprechende Kaliumverbindung ließ sich jedoch mit guten Ausbeuten gezielt aus Kupfer(I)-tert-butanolat herstellen. Beide Verbindungen weisen ein hantelförmiges Hyp-Cu-Hyp-Anion auf, die THF- bzw. THP-koordinierten Kationen liegen isoliert vom Anion vor. Eine neue Klasse von Kupfersilylverbindungen konnten durch Reaktion von Kupfer(I)-cyanid mit Alkalimetallhypersilaniden erzeugt werden. Dabei entstehen heteroleptische Cyano-hypersilyl-cuprate. Großen Einfluss auf die Strukturen üben die Alkalimetallkationen und Lösungsmittelmoleküle aus. So findet man bei den Lithiumverbindungen zweikernige Kupferkomplexe, die je nach Lösungsmittelgehalt unterschiedliche Anordnungen der Cyanid- und Hypersilanidanionen aufweisen. Lediglich die Kaliumverbindung weist lineare Cyanid-Kupfer-Hypersilanid-Einheiten auf, wie man sie analog von Organyl-cyano-cupraten kennt. Trotz vieler Gemeinsamkeiten vieler Silyl- und entsprechender Stannylverbindungen bezüglich Struktur und Reaktivität, erwies sich die Darstellung von Kupferstannyl-verbindungen schwieriger als erwartet. Zwar konnte in einer mehrstufigen Reaktion Kupfer-tris(trimethylsilyl)stannanid erhalten werden, auftretende Zwischen- und Nebenprodukte weisen jedoch auf das Auftreten von Umlagerungen und Redoxprozesse hin, die bei entsprechenden Kupfersilylverbindungen nicht beobachtet wurden.

Studio della formazione di espansi poliuretanici ad elevata resilienza contenenti reticolanti silanici

La produzione di sedili auto rappresenta una delle principali applicazioni delle schiume poliuretaniche flessibili a bassa densità. La forte necessità di riduzione del peso totale del veicolo si traduce in una richiesta di significative riduzioni di densità dei materiali utilizzati per l’interno vettura. Tale riduzione deve tuttavia essere associata a migliorate proprietà, nel senso del mantenimento delle performance nel tempo, della sicurezza e del comfort. Ricerche di mercato hanno evidenziato la necessità di sviluppare schiume poliuretaniche con elevate performance in termini di comfort, associate a significative riduzioni di densità e significative riduzioni di spessori applicati, nell’ottica di produrre sedili sempre più sottili consentendo la massima flessibilità di design dell’interno del veicolo. Scopo del presente progetto è lo sviluppo di una nuova chimica associata a quella del poliuretano che permetta di ottenere un elevato comfort. Il corpo umano e maggiormente sensibile a vibrazioni con frequenza tra i 4 e gli 8 Hz. In questo intervallo di frequenze le vibrazioni trasmesse sono correlate con l’isteresi del materiale stesso. Solitamente basse isteresi sono associate a bassa trasmissività delle vibrazioni. I produttori di auto hanno quindi cominciato a valutare il comfort di un sedile in termini di isteresi del materiale stesso. Nel caso specifico è considerato un sedile confortevole se possiede una isteresi inferiore al 18%. Le performance in termini di comfort devono essere associate anche ad una bassa emissione di composti organici volatili, con particolare attenzione ad ammine e aldeidi, ad un 15% di riduzione di densità (l’obiettivo è raggiungere una densità di 60 g/L a fronte di una densità attuale che si colloca nel range 75-80 g/L), con proprietà fisico meccaniche e resistenza all’invecchiamento in grado di soddisfare i capitolati delle case automobilistiche. Recentemente la produzione di SMPs (silane-modified polymers) ricopre un ruolo fondamentale nel mercato dei sigillanti e degli adesivi. L’idea di utilizzare questa famiglia di silani nella produzione di schiume poliuretaniche flessibili risiede nel fatto che, esattamente come in sigillanti e adesivi, ci possa essere una reazione successiva a quella di formazione del PU che possa dare ulteriore reticolazione della frazione morbida. La reazione di post-curing del silano ha incontrato diverse problematiche relative alla scarsa reattività del silano stesso. Per attivare la reazione di idrolisi e oligomerizzazione si è utilizzato un acido di Brønsted (DBSA) ma l’interazione con le ammine presenti nel poliolo formulato, necessarie alla reazione di formazione del legame uretanico, ne hanno inibito l’attività.

Noble-metal nanoparticles produced with colloidal lithography: fabrication, optical properties and applications

In this work, metal nanoparticles produced by nanosphere lithography were studied in terms of their optical properties (in connection to their plasmon resonances), their potential application in sensing platforms - for thin layer sensing and bio-recognition events -, and for a particular case (the nanocrescents), for enhanced spectroscopy studies. The general preparation procedures introduced early in 2005 by Shumaker-Parry et al. to produce metallic nanocrescents were extended to give rise to more complex (isolated) structures, and also, by combining colloidal monolayer fabrication and plasma etching techniques, to arrays of them. The fabrication methods presented in this work were extended not only to new shapes or arrangements of particles, but included also a targeted surface tailoring of the substrates and the structures, using different thiol and silane compounds as linkers for further attachment of, i.e. polyelectrolyte layers, which allow for a controlled tailoring of their nanoenvironment. The optical properties of the nanocrescents were studied with conventional transmission spectroscopy; a simple multipole model was adapted to explain their behaviour qualitatively. In terms of applications, the results on thin film sensing using these particles show that the crescents present an interesting mode-dependent sensitivity and spatial extension. Parallel to this, the penetrations depths were modeled with two simplified schemes, obtaining good agreement with theory. The multiple modes of the particles with their characteristic decay lengths and sensitivities represent a major improvement for particle-sensing platforms compared to previous single resonance systems. The nanocrescents were also used to alter the emission properties of fluorophores placed close to them. In this work, green emitting dyes were placed at controlled distances from the structures and excited using a pulsed laser emitting in the near infrared. The fluorescence signal obtained in this manner should be connected to a two-photon processes triggered by these structures; obtaining first insight into plasmon-mediated enhancement phenomena. An even simpler and faster approach to produce plasmonic structures than that for the crescents was tested. Metallic nanodiscs and nanoellipses were produced by means of nanosphere lithography, extending a procedure reported in the literature to new shapes and optical properties. The optical properties of these particles were characterized by extinction spectroscopy and compared to results from the literature. Their major advantage is that they present a polarization-dependent response, like the nanocrescents, but are much simpler to fabricate, and the resonances can be tailored in the visible with relative ease. The sensing capabilities of the metallic nanodiscs were explored in the same manner as for the nanocrescents, meaning their response to thin layers and to bio-recognition events on their surface. The sensitivity of these nanostructures to thin films proved to be lower than that of the crescents, though in the same order of magnitude. Experimental information about the near field extension for the Au nanodiscs of different sizes was also extracted from these measurements. Further resonance-tailoring approaches based on electrochemical deposition of metals on the nanodiscs were explored, as a means of modifying plasmon resonances by changing surface properties of the nanoparticles. First results on these experiments would indicate that the deposition of Ag on Au on a submonolayer coverage level can lead to important blue-shifts in the resonances, which would open a simple way to tailor resonances by changing material properties in a local manner.

Outdoor bronze conservation: assessment of protective treatments by accelerated aging and of treatment removal procedures by laser cleaning

Outdoor bronzes exposed to the environment form naturally a layer called patina, which may be able to protect the metallic substrate. However, since the last century, with the appearance of acid rains, a strong change in the nature and properties of the copper based patinas occurred [1]. Studies and general observations have established that bronze corrosion patinas created by acid rain are not only disfiguring in terms of loss of detail and homogeneity, but are also unstable [2]. The unstable patina is partially leached away by rainwater. This leaching is represented by green streaking on bronze monuments [3]. Because of the instability of the patina, conservation techniques are usually required. On a bronze object exposed to the outdoor environment, there are different actions of the rainfall and other atmospheric agents as a function of the monument shape. In fact, we recognize sheltered and unsheltered areas as regards exposure to rainwater [4]. As a consequence of these different actions, two main patina types are formed on monuments exposed to the outdoor environment. These patinas have different electrochemical, morphological and compositional characteristics [1]. In the case of sheltered areas, the patina contains mainly copper products, stratified above a layer strongly enriched in insoluble Sn oxides, located at the interface with the uncorroded metal. Moreover, different colors of the patina result from the exposure geometry. The surface color may be pale green for unsheltered areas, and green and mat black for sheltered areas [4]. Thus, in real outdoor bronze monuments, the corrosion behavior is strongly influenced by the exposure geometry. This must be taken into account when designing conservation procedures, since the patina is in most cases the support on which corrosion inhibitors are applied. Presently, for protecting outdoor bronzes against atmospheric corrosion, inhibitors and protective treatments are used. BTA and its derivatives, which are the most common inhibitors used for copper and its alloy, were found to be toxic for the environment and human health [5, 6]. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that BTA is efficient when applied on bare copper but not as efficient when applied on bare bronze [7]. Thus it was necessary to find alternative compounds. Silane-based inhibitors (already successfully tested on copper and other metallic substrates [8]), were taken into consideration as a non-toxic, environmentally friendly alternative to BTA derivatives for bronze protection. The purpose of this thesis was based on the assessment of the efficiency of a selected compound, to protect the bronze against corrosion, which is the 3-mercapto-propyl-trimethoxy-silane (PropS-SH). It was selected thanks to the collaboration with the Corrosion Studies Centre “Aldo Daccò” at the Università di Ferrara. Since previous studies [9, 10, 11] demonstrated that the addition of nanoparticles to silane-based inhibitors leads to an increase of the protective efficiency, we also wanted to evaluate the influence of the addition of CeO2, La2O3, TiO2 nanoparticles on the protective efficiency of 3-mercapto-propyl-trimethoxy-silane, applied on pre-patinated bronze surfaces. This study is the first section of the thesis. Since restorers have to work on patinated bronzes and not on bare metal (except for contemporary art), it is important to be able to recreate the patina, under laboratory conditions, either in sheltered or unsheltered conditions to test the coating and to obtain reliable results. Therefore, at the University of Bologna, different devices have been designed to simulate the real outdoor conditions and to create a patina which is representative of real application conditions of inhibitor or protective treatments. In particular, accelerated ageing devices by wet & dry (simulating the action of stagnant rain in sheltered areas [12]) and by dropping (simulating the leaching action of the rain in unsheltered areas [1]) tests were used. In the present work, we used the dropping test as a method to produce pre-patinated bronze surfaces for the application of a candidate inhibitor as well as for evaluating its protective efficiency on aged bronze (unsheltered areas). In this thesis, gilded bronzes were also studied. When they are exposed to the outside environment, a corrosion phenomenon appears which is due to the electrochemical couple gold/copper where copper is the anode. In the presence of an electrolyte, this phenomenon results in the formation of corrosion products than will cause a blistering of the gold (or a break-up and loss of the film in some cases). Moreover, because of the diffusion of the copper salts to the surface, aggregates and a greenish film will be formed on the surface of the sample [13]. By coating gilded samples with PropS-SH and PropS-SH containing nano-particles and carrying out accelerated ageing by the dropping test, a discussion is possible on the effectiveness of this coating, either with nano-particles or not, against the corrosion process. This part is the section 2 of this thesis. Finally, a discussion about laser treatment aiming at the assessment of reversibility/re-applicability of the PropS-SH coating can be found in section 3 of this thesis. Because the protective layer loses its efficiency with time, it is necessary to find a way of removing the silane layer, before applying a new one on the “bare” patina. One request is to minimize the damages that a laser treatment would create on the patina. Therefore, different laser fluences (energy/surface) were applied on the sample surface during the treatment process in order to find the best range of fluence. In particular, we made a characterization of surfaces before and after removal of PropS-SH (applied on a naturally patinated surface, and subsequently aged by natural exposure) with laser methods. The laser removal treatment was done by the CNR Institute of Applied Physics “Nello Carrara” of Sesto Fiorentino in Florence. In all the three sections of the thesis, a range of non-destructive spectroscopic methods (Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), μ-Raman spectroscopy, X-Ray diffractometry (XRD)) were used for characterizing the corroded surfaces. AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy) was used to analyze the ageing solutions from the dropping test in sections 1 and 2.