Contribución al diseño de lazos de realimentación electrónica para microsistemas electromecánicos (MEMS) resonantes: ruido de fase generado en lazos osciladores por sus realimentaciones

En 1966, D. B. Leeson publicó el artículo titulado “A simple model of feedback oscillator noise spectrum” en el que, mediante una ecuación obtenida de forma heurística y basada en parámetros conocidos de los osciladores, proponía un modelo para estimar el espectro de potencia que cuantifica el Ruido de Fase de estos osciladores. Este Ruido de Fase pone de manifiesto las fluctuaciones aleatorias que se producen en la fase de la señal de salida de cualquier oscilador de frecuencia f_0. Desde entonces, los adelantos tecnológicos han permitido grandes progresos en cuanto a la medida del Ruido de Fase, llegando a encontrar una estrecha “zona plana”, alrededor de f_0, conocida con el nombre de Ensanchamiento de Línea (EL) que Leeson no llegó a observar y que su modelo empírico no recogía. Paralelamente han ido surgiendo teorías que han tratado de explicar el Ruido de Fase con mayor o menor éxito. En esta Tesis se propone una nueva teoría para explicar el espectro de potencia del Ruido de Fase de un oscilador realimentado y basado en resonador L-C (Inductancia-Capacidad). Al igual que otras teorías, la nuestra también relaciona el Ruido de Fase del oscilador con el ruido térmico del circuito que lo implementa pero, a diferencia de aquellas, nuestra teoría se basa en un Modelo Complejo de ruido eléctrico que considera tanto las Fluctuaciones de energía eléctrica asociadas a la susceptancia capacitiva del resonador como las Disipaciones de energía eléctrica asociadas a su inevitable conductancia G=1⁄R, que dan cuenta del contacto térmico entre el resonador y el entorno térmico que le rodea. En concreto, la nueva teoría que proponemos explica tanto la parte del espectro del Ruido de Fase centrada alrededor de la frecuencia portadora f_0 que hemos llamado EL y su posterior caída proporcional a 〖∆f〗^(-2) al alejarnos de f_0, como la zona plana o pedestal que aparece en el espectro de Ruido de Fase lejos de esa f_0. Además, al saber cuantificar el EL y su origen, podemos explicar con facilidad la aparición de zonas del espectro de Ruido de Fase con caída 〖∆f〗^(-3) cercanas a la portadora y que provienen del denominado “exceso de ruido 1⁄f” de dispositivos de Estado Sólido y del ruido “flicker” de espectro 1⁄f^β (0,8≤β≤1,2) que aparece en dispositivos de vacío como las válvulas termoiónicas. Habiendo mostrado que una parte del Ruido de Fase de osciladores L-C realimentados que hemos denominado Ruido de Fase Térmico, se debe al ruido eléctrico de origen térmico de la electrónica que forma ese oscilador, proponemos en esta Tesis una nueva fuente de Ruido de Fase que hemos llamado Ruido de Fase Técnico, que se añadirá al Térmico y que aparecerá cuando el desfase del lazo a la frecuencia de resonancia f_0 del resonador no sea 0° o múltiplo entero de 360° (Condición Barkhausen de Fase, CBF). En estos casos, la modulación aleatoria de ganancia de lazo que realiza el Control Automático de Amplitud en su lucha contra ruidos que traten de variar la amplitud de la señal oscilante del lazo, producirá a su vez una modulación aleatoria de la frecuencia de tal señal que se observará como más Ruido de Fase añadido al Térmico. Para dar una prueba empírica sobre la existencia de esta nueva fuente de Ruido de Fase, se diseñó y construyó un oscilador en torno a un resonador mecánico “grande” para tener un Ruido de Fase Térmico despreciable a efectos prácticos. En este oscilador se midió su Ruido de Fase Técnico tanto en función del valor del desfase añadido al lazo de realimentación para apartarlo de su CBF, como en función de la perturbación de amplitud inyectada para mostrar sin ambigüedad la aparición de este Ruido de Fase Técnico cuando el lazo tiene este fallo técnico: que no cumple la Condición Barkhausen de Fase a la frecuencia de resonancia f_0 del resonador, por lo que oscila a otra frecuencia. ABSTRACT In 1966, D. B. Leeson published the article titled “A simple model of feedback oscillator noise spectrum” in which, by means of an equation obtained heuristically and based on known parameters of the oscillators, a model was proposed to estimate the power spectrum that quantifies the Phase Noise of these oscillators. This Phase Noise reveals the random fluctuations that are produced in the phase of the output signal from any oscillator of frequencyf_0. Since then, technological advances have allowed significant progress regarding the measurement of Phase Noise. This way, the narrow flat region that has been found around f_(0 ), is known as Line Widening (LW). This region that Leeson could not detect at that time does not appear in his empirical model. After Leeson’s work, different theories have appeared trying to explain the Phase Noise of oscillators. This Thesis proposes a new theory that explains the Phase Noise power spectrum of a feedback oscillator around a resonator L-C (Inductance-Capacity). Like other theories, ours also relates the oscillator Phase Noise to the thermal noise of the feedback circuitry, but departing from them, our theory uses a new, Complex Model for electrical noise that considers both Fluctuations of electrical energy associated with the capacitive susceptance of the resonator and Dissipations of electrical energy associated with its unavoidable conductance G=1/R, which accounts for the thermal contact between the resonator and its surrounding environment (thermal bath). More specifically, the new theory we propose explains both the Phase Noise region of the spectrum centered at the carrier frequency f_0 that we have called LW and shows a region falling as 〖∆f〗^(-2) as we depart from f_0, and the flat zone or pedestal that appears in the Phase Noise spectrum far from f_0. Being able to quantify the LW and its origin, we can easily explain the appearance of Phase Noise spectrum zones with 〖∆f〗^(-3) slope near the carrier that come from the so called “1/f excess noise” in Solid-State devices and “flicker noise” with 1⁄f^β (0,8≤β≤1,2) spectrum that appears in vacuum devices such as thermoionic valves. Having shown that the part of the Phase Noise of L-C oscillators that we have called Thermal Phase Noise is due to the electrical noise of the electronics used in the oscillator, this Thesis can propose a new source of Phase Noise that we have called Technical Phase Noise, which will appear when the loop phase shift to the resonance frequency f_0 is not 0° or an integer multiple of 360° (Barkhausen Phase Condition, BPC). This Phase Noise that will add to the Thermal one, comes from the random modulation of the loop gain carried out by the Amplitude Automatic Control fighting against noises trying to change the amplitude of the oscillating signal in the loop. In this case, the BPC failure gives rise to a random modulation of the frequency of the output signal that will be observed as more Phase Noise added to the Thermal one. To give an empirical proof on the existence of this new source of Phase Noise, an oscillator was designed and constructed around a “big” mechanical resonator whose Thermal Phase Noise is negligible for practical effects. The Technical Phase Noise of this oscillator has been measured with regard to the phase lag added to the feedback loop to separate it from its BPC, and with regard to the amplitude disturbance injected to show without ambiguity the appearance of this Technical Phase Noise that appears when the loop has this technical failure: that it does not fulfill the Barkhausen Phase Condition at f_0, the resonance frequency of the resonator and therefore it is oscillating at a frequency other than f_0.

A paper:--of tobacco; treating of the rise, progress, pleasures, and advantages of smoking. With anecdotes of distinguished smokers, mems. on pipes and tobacco-boxes, and a tritical essay on snuff.

With illustrations by Phiz., pseud.

Characteristics of low temperature PECVD silicon nitride for MEMS structural materials

Materials and mechanical characteristics of the low temperature PECVD silicon nitrides have been investigated using various analytical and testing techniques. TEM and SEM examinations reveal that there is no distinct microstructural difference existing between the films deposited under different conditions. However, their mechanical properties determined by nanoindentation indicate otherwise. The variations in mechanical properties with deposition conditions are found to be strongly correlated to the change in silicon-to-nitrogen ratio in the film.

An investigation of thin amorphous carbon-based sputtered coatings for MEMS and micro-engineering applications

The work presented in this thesis describes an investigation into the production and properties of thin amorphous C films, with and without Cr doping, as a low wear / friction coating applicable to MEMS and other micro- and nano-engineering applications. Firstly, an assessment was made of the available testing techniques. Secondly, the optimised test methods were applied to a series of sputtered films of thickness 10 - 2000 nm in order to: (i) investigate the effect of thickness on the properties of coatingslcoating process (ii) investigate fundamental tribology at the nano-scale and (iii) provide a starting point for nanotribological coating optimisation at ultra low thickness. The use of XPS was investigated for the determination of Sp3/Sp2 carbon bonding. Under C 1s peak analysis, significant errors were identified and this was attributed to the absence of sufficient instrument resolution to guide the component peak structure (even with a high resolution instrument). A simple peak width analysis and correlation work with C KLL D value confirmed the errors. The use of XPS for Sp3/Sp2 was therefore limited to initial tentative estimations. Nanoindentation was shown to provide consistent hardness and reduced modulus results with depth (to < 7nm) when replicate data was suitably statistically processed. No significant pile-up or cracking of the films was identified under nanoindentation. Nanowear experimentation by multiple nanoscratching provided some useful information, however the conditions of test were very different to those expect for MEMS and micro- / nano-engineering systems. A novel 'sample oscillated nanoindentation' system was developed for testing nanowear under more relevant conditions. The films were produced in an industrial production coating line. In order to maximise the available information and to take account of uncontrolled process variation a statistical design of experiment procedure was used to investigate the effect of four key process control parameters. Cr doping was the most significant control parameter at all thicknesses tested and produced a softening effect and thus increased nanowear. Substrate bias voltage was also a significant parameter and produced hardening and a wear reducing effect at all thicknesses tested. The use of a Cr adhesion layer produced beneficial results at 150 nm thickness, but was ineffective at 50 nm. Argon flow to the coating chamber produced a complex effect. All effects reduced significantly with reducing film thickness. Classic fretting wear was produced at low amplitude under nanowear testing. Reciprocating sliding was produced at higher amplitude which generated three body abrasive wear and this was generally consistent with the Archard model. Specific wear rates were very low (typically 10-16 - 10-18 m3N-1m-1). Wear rates reduced exponentially with reduced film thickness and below (approx.) 20 nm, thickness was identified as the most important control of wear.

The development of a novel Bio-MEMS filtration chip for the separation of specific cells in fluid suspension

In the clinical/microbiological laboratory there are currently several ways of separating specific cells from a fluid suspension. Conventionally cells can be separated based on size, density, electrical charge, light-scattering properties, and antigenic surface properties. Separating cells using these parameters can require complex technologies and specialist equipment. This paper proposes new Bio-MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) filtration chips manufactured using deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) technology that, when used in conjunction with an optical microscope and a syringe, can filter and grade cells for size without the requirement for additional expensive equipment. These chips also offer great versatility in terms of design and their low cost allows them to be disposable, eliminating sample contamination. The pumping mechanism, unlike many other current filtration techniques, leaves samples mechanically and chemically undamaged. In this paper the principles behind harnessing passive pumping are explored, modelled, and validated against empirical data, and their integration into a microfluidic device to separate cells from a mixed population suspension is described. The design, means of manufacture, and results from preliminary tests are also presented. © IMechE 2007.

Starting from Scratch: Creating an Information Technology Infrastructure for MEMS-Related Research and Development

Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) have already revolutionized several industries through miniaturization and cost effective manufacturing capabilities that were never possible before. However, commercially available MEMS products have only scratched the surface of the application areas where MEMS has potential. The complex and highly technical nature of MEMS research and development (R&D) combined with the lack of standards in areas such as design, fabrication and test methodologies, makes creating and supporting a MEMS R&D program a financial and technological challenge. A proper information technology (IT) infrastructure is the backbone of such research and is critical to its success. While the lack of standards and the general complexity in MEMS R&D makes it impossible to provide a “one size fits all” design, a systematic approach, combined with a good understanding of the MEMS R&D environment and the relevant computer-aided design tools, provides a way for the IT architect to develop an appropriate infrastructure.

Design and fabrication of two switched superconductivity microstrip hairpin filters using series micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) switches

Series Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) switches based on superconductor are utilized to switch between two bandpass hairpin filters with bandwidths of 365 MHz and nominal center frequencies of 2.1 GHz and 2.6 GHz. This was accomplished with 4 switches actuated in pairs, one pair at a time. When one pair was actuated the first bandpass filter was coupled to the input and output ports. When the other pair was actuated the second bandpass filter was coupled to the input and output ports. The device is made of a YBa2Cu 3O7 thin film deposited on a 20 mm x 20 mm LaAlO3 substrate by pulsed laser deposition. BaTiO3 deposited by RF magnetron sputtering in utilized as the insulation layer at the switching points of contact. These results obtained assured great performance showing a switchable device at 68 V with temperature of 40 K for the 2.1 GHz filter and 75 V with temperature of 30 K for the 2.6 GHz hairpin filter. ^

C-MEMS Based Micro Enzymatic Biofuel Cells

Miniaturized, self-sufficient bioelectronics powered by unconventional micropower may lead to a new generation of implantable, wireless, minimally invasive medical devices, such as pacemakers, defibrillators, drug-delivering pumps, sensor transmitters, and neurostimulators. Studies have shown that micro-enzymatic biofuel cells (EBFCs) are among the most intuitive candidates for in vivo micropower. In the fisrt part of this thesis, the prototype design of an EBFC chip, having 3D intedigitated microelectrode arrays was proposed to obtain an optimum design of 3D microelectrode arrays for carbon microelectromechanical systems (C-MEMS) based EBFCs. A detailed modeling solving partial differential equations (PDEs) by finite element techniques has been developed on the effect of 1) dimensions of microelectrodes, 2) spatial arrangement of 3D microelectrode arrays, 3) geometry of microelectrode on the EBFC performance based on COMSOL Multiphysics. In the second part of this thesis, in order to investigate the performance of an EBFC, behavior of an EBFC chip performance inside an artery has been studied. COMSOL Multiphysics software has also been applied to analyze mass transport for different orientations of an EBFC chip inside a blood artery. Two orientations: horizontal position (HP) and vertical position (VP) have been analyzed. The third part of this thesis has been focused on experimental work towards high performance EBFC. This work has integrated graphene/enzyme onto three-dimensional (3D) micropillar arrays in order to obtain efficient enzyme immobilization, enhanced enzyme loading and facilitate direct electron transfer. The developed 3D graphene/enzyme network based EBFC generated a maximum power density of 136.3 μWcm-2 at 0.59 V, which is almost 7 times of the maximum power density of the bare 3D carbon micropillar arrays based EBFC. To further improve the EBFC performance, reduced graphene oxide (rGO)/carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has been integrated onto 3D mciropillar arrays to further increase EBFC performance in the fourth part of this thesisThe developed rGO/CNTs based EBFC generated twice the maximum power density of rGO based EBFC. Through a comparison of experimental and theoretical results, the cell performance efficiency is noted to be 67%.

High volume fabrication of laser targets using MEMS techniques

The latest techniques for the fabrication of high power laser targets, using processes developed for the manufacture of Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) devices are discussed. These laser targets are designed to meet the needs of the increased shot numbers that are available in the latest design of laser facilities. Traditionally laser targets have been fabricated using conventional machining or coarse etching processes and have been produced in quantities of 10s to low 100s. Such targets can be used for high complexity experiments such as Inertial Fusion Energy (IFE) studies and can have many complex components that need assembling and characterisation with high precision. Using the techniques that are common to MEMS devices and integrating these with an existing target fabrication capability we are able to manufacture and deliver targets to these systems. It also enables us to manufacture novel targets that have not been possible using other techniques. In addition, developments in the positioning systems that are required to deliver these targets to the laser focus are also required and a system to deliver the target to a focus of an F2 beam at 0.1Hz is discussed.

Development of a Wireless MEMS Multifunction Sensor System and Field Demonstration of Embedded Sensors for Monitoring Concrete Pavements, TR-637, 2016

Pavements tend to deteriorate with time under repeated traffic and/or environmental loading. By detecting pavement distresses and damage early enough, it is possible for transportation agencies to develop more effective pavement maintenance and rehabilitation programs and thereby achieve significant cost and time savings. The structural health monitoring (SHM) concept can be considered as a systematic method for assessing the structural state of pavement infrastructure systems and documenting their condition. Over the past several years, this process has traditionally been accomplished through the use of wired sensors embedded in bridge and highway pavement. However, the use of wired sensors has limitations for long-term SHM and presents other associated cost and safety concerns. Recently, micro-electromechanical sensors and systems (MEMS) and nano-electromechanical systems (NEMS) have emerged as advanced/smart-sensing technologies with potential for cost-effective and long-term SHM. This two-pronged study evaluated the performance of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) MEMS sensors embedded in concrete pavement (Final Report Volume I) and developed a wireless MEMS multifunctional sensor system for health monitoring of concrete pavement (Final Report Volume II).