Composition and morphology of particle emissions from in-use aircraft during takeoff and landing

In order to provide realistic data for air pollution inventories and source apportionment at airports, the morphology and composition of ultrafine particles (UFP) in aircraft engine exhaust were measured and characterized. For this purpose, two independent measurement techniques were employed to collect emissions during normal takeoff and landing operations at Brisbane Airport, Australia. PM1 emissions in the airfield were collected on filters and analyzed using the particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) technique. Morphological and compositional analyses of individual ultrafine particles in aircraft plumes were performed on silicon nitride membrane grids using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) combined with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis (EDX). TEM results showed that the deposited particles were in the range of 5 to 100 nm in diameter, had semisolid spherical shapes and were dominant in the nucleation mode (18 – 20 nm). The EDX analysis showed the main elements in the nucleation particles were C, O, S and Cl. The PIXE analysis of the airfield samples was generally in agreement with the EDX in detecting S, Cl, K, Fe and Si in the particles. The results of this study provide important scientific information on the toxicity of aircraft exhaust and their impact on local air quality.

Study of new particle formation in subtropical urban environment in Brisbane, Australia

Atmospheric ultrafine particles play an important role in affecting human health, altering climate and degrading visibility. Numerous studies have been conducted to better understand the formation process of these particles, including field measurements, laboratory chamber studies and mathematical modeling approaches. Field studies on new particle formation found that formation processes were significantly affected by atmospheric conditions, such as the availability of particle precursors and meteorological conditions. However, those studies were mainly carried out in rural areas of the northern hemisphere and information on new particle formation in urban areas, especially those in subtropical regions, is limited. In general, subtropical regions display a higher level of solar radiation, along with stronger photochemical reactivity, than those regions investigated in previous studies. However, based on the results of these studies, the mechanisms involved in the new particle formation process remain unclear, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. Therefore, in order to fill this gap in knowledge, a new particle formation study was conducted in a subtropical urban area in the Southern Hemisphere during 2009, which measured particle size distribution in different locations in Brisbane, Australia. Characterisation of nucleation events was conducted at the campus building of the Queensland University of Technology (QUT), located in an urban area of Brisbane. Overall, the annual average number concentrations of ultrafine, Aitken and nucleation mode particles were found to be 9.3 x 103, 3.7 x 103 and 5.6 x 103 cm-3, respectively. This was comparable to levels measured in urban areas of northern Europe, but lower than those from polluted urban areas such as the Yangtze River Delta, China and Huelva and Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain. Average particle number concentration (PNC) in the Brisbane region did not show significant seasonal variation, however a relatively large variation was observed during the warmer season. Diurnal variation of Aitken and nucleation mode particles displayed different patterns, which suggested that direct vehicle exhaust emissions were a major contributor of Aitken mode particles, while nucleation mode particles originated from vehicle exhaust emissions in the morning and photochemical production at around noon. A total of 65 nucleation events were observed during 2009, in which 40 events were classified as nucleation growth events and the remainder were nucleation burst events. An interesting observation in this study was that all nucleation growth events were associated with vehicle exhaust emission plumes, while the nucleation burst events were associated with industrial emission plumes from an industrial area. The average particle growth rate for nucleation events was found to be 4.6 nm hr-1 (ranging from 1.79-7.78 nm hr-1), which is comparable to other urban studies conducted in the United States, while monthly particle growth rates were found to be positively related to monthly solar radiation (r = 0.76, p <0.05). The particle growth rate values reported in this work are the first of their kind to be reported for the subtropical urban area of Australia. Furthermore, the influence of nucleation events on PNC within the urban airshed was also investigated. PNC was simultaneously measured at urban (QUT), roadside (Woolloongabba) and semi-urban (Rocklea) sites in Brisbane during 2009. Total PNC at these sites was found to be significantly affected by regional nucleation events. The relative fractions of PNC to total daily PNC observed at QUT, Woolloongabba and Rocklea were found to be 12%, 9% and 14%, respectively, during regional nucleation events. These values were higher than those observed as a result of vehicle exhaust emissions during weekday mornings, which ranged from 5.1-5.5% at QUT and Woolloongabba. In addition, PNC in the semi-urban area of Rocklea increased by a factor of 15.4 when it was upwind from urban pollution sources under the influence of nucleation burst events. Finally, we investigated the influence of sulfuric acid on new particle formation in the study region. A H2SO4 proxy was calculated by using [SO2], solar radiation and particle condensation sink data to represent the new particle production strength for the urban, roadside and semi-urban areas of Brisbane during the period June-July of 2009. The temporal variations of the H2SO4 proxies and the nucleation mode particle concentration were found to be in phase during nucleation events in the urban and roadside areas. In contrast, the peak of proxy concentration occurred 1-2 hr prior to the observed peak in nucleation mode particle concentration at the downwind semi-urban area of Brisbane. A moderate to strong linear relationship was found between the proxy and the freshly formed particles, with r2 values of 0.26-0.77 during the nucleation events. In addition, the log[H2SO4 proxy] required to produce new particles was found to be ~1.0 ppb Wm-2 s and below 0.5 ppb Wm-2 s for the urban and semi-urban areas, respectively. The particle growth rates were similar during nucleation events at the three study locations, with an average value of 2.7 ± 0.5 nm hr-1. This result suggested that a similar nucleation mechanism dominated in the study region, which was strongly related to sulphuric acid concentration, however the relationship between the proxy and PNC was poor in the semi-urban area of Rocklea. This can be explained by the fact that the nucleation process was initiated upwind of the site and the resultant particles were transported via the wind to Rocklea. This explanation is also supported by the higher geometric mean diameter value observed for particles during the nucleation event and the time lag relationship between the H2SO4 proxy and PNC observed at Rocklea. In summary, particle size distribution was continuously measured in a subtropical urban area of southern hemisphere during 2009, the findings from which formed the first particle size distribution dataset in the study region. The characteristics of nucleation events in the Brisbane region were quantified and the properties of the nucleation growth and burst events are discussed in detail using a case studies approach. To further investigate the influence of nucleation events on PNC in the study region, PNC was simultaneously measured at three locations to examine the spatial variation of PNC during the regional nucleation events. In addition, the impact of upwind urban pollution on the downwind semi-urban area was quantified during these nucleation events. Sulphuric acid was found to be an important factor influencing new particle formation in the urban and roadside areas of the study region, however, a direct relationship with nucleation events at the semi-urban site was not observed. This study provided an overview of new particle formation in the Brisbane region, and its influence on PNC in the surrounding area. The findings of this work are the first of their kind for an urban area in the southern hemisphere.

Study of particulate matter removal mechanism by using non-thermal plasma technology

Numbers of diesel engines in both stationary and mobile applications are increasing nowadays. Diesel engines emit lower Hydrocarbon (HC) and Carbon monoxide (CO) than gasoline engines. However, they can produce more nitrogen oxides (NOx) and have higher particulate matter (PM). On the other hand, emissions standards are getting stringent day by day due to considerable concerns about unregulated pollutants and particularly ultrafine particles deleterious effect on human health. Non-thermal plasma (NTP) treatment of exhaust gas is known as a promising technology for both NOx and PM reduction by introducing plasma inside the exhaust gas. Vehicle exhaust gases undergo chemical changes when exposed to plasma. In this study, the PM removal mechanism using NTP by applying high voltage pulses of up to 20 kVpp with a repetition rate of 10 kHz are investigated. It is found that, voltage increase not necessarily has a positive effect on PM removal in diesel engine emissions.

Methyl ester preparation from peanut oil and its effect on DI diesel engine combustion

This study investigated the preparation of methyl ester (Biodiesel) from peanut oil by transesterification method and its effect on DI diesel engine. Two parameters were measured during the engine operation: one is engine performance (brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption), and the other is the exhaust emissions (NOx and CO). The result showed that, when compared with neat diesel fuel, the brake thermal efficiency of biodiesel blend was almost similar or a slight lower. However, brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) was a little higher than neat diesel. CO was lower and NOx was little higher with biodiesel blend than that of diesel. The engine performance for B10 and B20 was very similar. At medium and high load conditions the engine emissions for B10 and B20 has no significant variation. Hence, B20 can safely be used in diesel engine without any significant penalty in engine performance and emissions.

Mixing and dispersion of pollutants emitted from an outboard motor

This paper quantifies the mixing and dispersion from an outboard motor by field experiments in a small subtropical waterway. Organic dye was used as a surrogate for exhaust emissions and was mixed with uncontaminated creek water before being dispersed into the creek. Dye concentrations were measured with an array of concentration probes stationed in the creek. The data were then processed and fitted with a power law function. The corresponding dispersion constants agreed well with the literature. However, the amplitude was lower than the IMO equation but higher than the correlation from laboratory tests. Results for dye concentration intermittency (presence of dye) are presented for the first time from such field measurements and show significant mixing in-homogeneity.

Investigation of the chemical and physical basis of oxidative stress generated by particulate matter using the profluorescent probe technique

Following the growing need for adoption of alternative fuels, this project aimed at getting more information on the oxidative potential of biodiesel particulate matter. Within this scope, the physical and chemical characteristics of biodiesel PM were analysed which lead to identification of reactive organic fractions. An in-house developed proflurescent nitroxide probe was used. This project further developed in-depth understanding of the chemical mechanisms following the detection of the oxidative potential of PM. This knowledge made a significant contribution to our understanding of processes behind negative health effects of pollution and enabled us to further develop new techniques to monitor it.

The microbial content of vacuum cleaner bag dust and emitted bioaerosols : implications for human exposures indoors

Vacuum cleaners can release large concentrations of particles, both in their exhaust air and from resuspension of settled dust. However, the size, variability and microbial diversity of these emissions are unknown, despite evidence to suggest they may contribute to allergic responses and infection transmission indoors. This study aimed to evaluate bioaerosol emission from various vacuum cleaners. We sampled the air in an experimental flow tunnel where vacuum cleaners were run and their airborne emissions sampled with closed-face cassettes. Dust samples were also 35 collected from the dust bag. Total bacteria, total archaea, Penicillium/Aspergillus and total Clostridium cluster 1 were quantified with specific qPCR protocols and emission rates were calculated. Clostridium botulinum, as well as antibiotic resistance genes were detected in each sample using endpoint PCR. Bacterial diversity was also analyzed using denaturing gel electrophoresis (DGGE), image analysis and band sequencing. We demonstrated that emission of bacteria and moulds (Pen/Asp) can reach values as high as 1E05/min and that those emissions are not related to each other. The bag dust bacterial and mould content was also consistently across the vacuums we assessed, reaching up to 1E07 bacteria or moulds equivalent/g. Antibiotic resistance genes were detected in several samples. No archaea or C. botulinum were detected in any air samples. Diversity analyses showed that most bacteria are from human sources, in keeping with other recent results. These results highlight the potential capability of vacuum cleaners to disseminate appreciable quantities of moulds and human-associated bacteria indoors and their role as a source of exposure to bioaerosols.

High frequency high power converters for industrial applications

The main contribution of this project was to investigate power electronics technology in designing and developing high frequency high power converters for industrial applications. Therefore, the research was conducted at two levels; first at system level which mainly encapsulated the circuit topology and control scheme and second at application level which involves with real-world applications. Pursuing these objectives, varied topologies have been developed and proposed within this research. The main aim was to resolving solid-state switches limited power rating and operating speed while increasing the system flexibility considering the application characteristics. The developed new power converter configurations were applied to pulsed power and high power ultrasound applications for experimental validation.

Biodiesel with controlled physicochemical properties, a means to further reduce diesel engine particle emissions

The issue of particle emissions from diesel engines is still a matter of concern due its deleterious effects both on human health and environment(Ristovski et al., 2012). Recently, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) inclusion of diesel engine exhaust particles as carcinogenic to human health added a new margin on it. Apart from the use of after treatment technology, biodiesel is also considered as potential way to reduce particle emission alongside with other emissions(Xue, Grift, & Hansen, 2011). Global biodiesel production is still reasonably small compared to its counterpart fossil diesel, but even this small amount comes from a wide variety of feed stocks. Contrary to fossil diesel, the important physicochemical properties of biodiesel vary among different feed stocks(Hoekman, Broch, Robbins, Ceniceros, & Natarajan, 2012).

Remote measurement of diesel locomotive emission factors and particle size distributions

A technique for analysing exhaust emission plumes from unmodified locomotives under real world conditions is described and applied to the task of characterizing plumes from railway trains servicing an Australian shipping port. The method utilizes the simultaneous measurement, downwind of the railway line, of the following pollutants; particle number, PM2.5 mass fraction, SO2, NOx and CO2, with the last of these being used as an indicator of fuel combustion. Emission factors are then derived, in terms of number of particles and mass of pollutant emitted per unit mass of fuel consumed. Particle number size distributions are also presented. The practical advantages of the method are discussed including the capacity to routinely collect emission factor data for passing trains and to thereby build up a comprehensive real world database for a wide range of pollutants. Samples from 56 train movements were collected, analyzed and presented. The quantitative results for emission factors are: EF(N)=(1.7±1)×1016 kg-1, EF(PM2.5)= (1.1±0.5) g·kg-1, EF(NOx)= (28±14) g·kg-1, and EF(SO2 )= (1.4±0.4) g·kg-1. The findings are compared with comparable previously published work. Statistically significant (p<α, α=0.05) correlations within the group of locomotives sampled were found between the emission factors for particle number and both SO2 and NOx.

Mathematical relationships for metal build-up on urban road surfaces based on traffic and land use characteristics

The study investigated the influence of traffic and land use parameters on metal build-up on urban road surfaces. Mathematical relationships were developed to predict metals originating from fuel combustion and vehicle wear. The analysis undertaken found that nickel and chromium originate from exhaust emissions, lead, copper and zinc from vehicle wear, cadmium from both exhaust and wear and manganese from geogenic sources. Land use does not demonstrate a clear pattern in relation to the metal build-up process, though its inherent characteristics such as traffic activities exert influence. The equation derived for fuel related metal load has high cross-validated coefficient of determination (Q2) and low Standard Error of Cross-Validation (SECV) values indicates that the model is reliable, while the equation derived for wear-related metal load has low Q2 and high SECV values suggesting its use only in preliminary investigations. Relative Prediction Error values for both equations are considered to be well within the error limits for a complex system such as an urban road surface. These equations will be beneficial for developing reliable stormwater treatment strategies in urban areas which specifically focus on mitigation of metal pollution.

Experimental and numerical analysis of the relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne particles in an operating room

This work investigated the impact of the HVAC filtration system and indoor particle sources on the relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne particle size and concentrations in an operating room. Filters with efficiency between 65% and 99.97% were used in the investigation and indoor and outdoor particle size and concentrations were measured. A balance mass model was used for the simulation of the impact of the surgical team, deposition rate, HVAC exhaust and air change rates on indoor particle concentration. The experimental results showed that high efficiency filters would not be expected to decrease the risk associated with indoor particles larger than approximately 1 µm in size because normal filters are relatively efficient for these large particles. A good fraction of outdoor particles were removed by deposition on the HVAC system surfaces and this deposition increased with particle size. For particles of 0.3-0.5 µm in diameter, particle reduction was about 23%, while for particles >10 µm the loss was about 78%. The modelling results showed that depending on the type of filter used, the surgical team generated between 93-99% of total particles, while the outdoor air contributed only 1-6%.

Condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of diesel engines using instantaneous angular speed analysis

Continuous monitoring of diesel engine performance is critical for early detection of fault developments in an engine before they materialize into a functional failure. Instantaneous crank angular speed (IAS) analysis is one of a few nonintrusive condition monitoring techniques that can be utilized for such a task. Furthermore, the technique is more suitable for mass industry deployments than other non-intrusive methods such as vibration and acoustic emission techniques due to the low instrumentation cost, smaller data size and robust signal clarity since IAS is not affected by the engine operation noise and noise from the surrounding environment. A combination of IAS and order analysis was employed in this experimental study and the major order component of the IAS spectrum was used for engine loading estimation and fault diagnosis of a four-stroke four-cylinder diesel engine. It was shown that IAS analysis can provide useful information about engine speed variation caused by changing piston momentum and crankshaft acceleration during the engine combustion process. It was also found that the major order component of the IAS spectra directly associated with the engine firing frequency (at twice the mean shaft rotating speed) can be utilized to estimate engine loading condition regardless of whether the engine is operating at healthy condition or with faults. The amplitude of this order component follows a distinctive exponential curve as the loading condition changes. A mathematical relationship was then established in the paper to estimate the engine power output based on the amplitude of this order component of the IAS spectrum. It was further illustrated that IAS technique can be employed for the detection of a simulated exhaust valve fault in this study.

Experiences with control of evaporators using extensive vapour bleeding

FOR SUGAR factories with cogeneration plants major changes to the process stations have been undertaken to reduce the consumption of exhaust steam from the turbines and maximise the generated power. In many cases the process steam consumption has been reduced from greater than 52% on cane to ~40% on cane. The main changes have been to install additional evaporation area at the front of the set, operate the pan stages on vapour from No 1 or No 2 effects and undertake juice heating using vapour bleed from evaporators as far down the set as the penultimate stage. Operationally, one of the main challenges has been to develop a control system for the evaporators that addresses the objectives of juice processing rate (throughput) and steam economy, while producing syrup consistently at the required brix and providing an adequate and consistent vapour pressure for the pan stage operations. The cyclic demand for vapour by batch pans causes process disturbances through the evaporator set and these must be regulated in an effective manner to satisfy the above list of objectives for the evaporator station. The impact of the cyclic pan stage vapour demand has been modelled to define the impact on juice rate, steam economy, syrup brix and head space pressures in the evaporators. Experiences with the control schemes used at Pioneer and Rocky Point Mills are discussed. For each factory the paper provides information on (a) the control system used, the philosophy behind the control system and experiences in reaching the current system for control (b) the performance of the control system to handle the disturbances imposed by the pan stage and operate within other constraints of the factory (c) deficiencies in the current system and plans for further improvements. Other processing changes to boost the performance of the evaporators are also discussed.

Particle number emissions from a large fleet of diesel and CNG buses

Exhaust emissions were monitored in real-time at the kerb of a busy busway used by a mix of diesel and CNG-powered transport buses. Particle number concentration in the size range 3 nm to 3 µm was measured with a TSI condensation particle counter (CPC 3025). Particle mass (PM2.5) was measured with a TSI Dustrak 8520. The CO2 emissions were measured with a fast response CO2 analyser (Sable CA-10A). All emission concentrations were recorded in real time at 1 sec resolution, together with the precise passage times of buses. The instantaneous ratio of particle number (or mass) to CO2 concentration, denoted Z, was used as a measure of the particle number (or mass) emission factor of each passing bus.