Diagnostic Molecular Markers for Phosphine Resistance in U.S. Populations of Tribolium castaneum and Rhyzopertha dominica

Stored product beetles that are resistant to the fumigant pesticide phosphine (hydrogen phosphide) gas have been reported for more than 40 years in many places worldwide. Traditionally, determination of phosphine resistance in stored product beetles is based on a discriminating dose bioassay that can take up to two weeks to evaluate. We developed a diagnostic cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence method, CAPS, to detect individuals with alleles for strong resistance to phosphine in populations of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, and the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica, according to a single nucleotide mutation in the dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (DLD) gene. We initially isolated and sequenced the DLD genes from susceptible and strongly resistant populations of both species. The corresponding amino acid sequences were then deduced. A single amino acid mutation in DLD in populations of T.castaneum and R.dominica with strong resistance was identified as P45S in T.castaneum and P49S in R.dominica, both collected from northern Oklahoma, USA. PCR products containing these mutations were digested by the restriction enzymes MboI and BstNI, which revealed presence or absence, respectively of the resistant (R) allele and allowed inference of genotypes with that allele. Seven populations of T.castaneum from Kansas were subjected to discriminating dose bioassays for the weak and strong resistance phenotypes. Application of CAPS to these seven populations confirmed the R allele was in high frequency in the strongly resistant populations, and was absent or at a lower frequency in populations with weak resistance, which suggests that these populations with a low frequency of the R allele have the potential for selection of the strong resistance phenotype. CAPS markers for strong phosphine resistance will help to detect and confirm resistant beetles and can facilitate resistance management actions against a given pest population.

Prevalence and potential fitness cost of weak phosphine resistance in Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) in eastern Australia

The prevalence of resistance to phosphine in the rust-red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, from eastern Australia was investigated, as well as the potential fitness cost of this type of resistance. Discriminating dose tests on 115 population samples collected from farms from 2006 to 2010 showed that populations containing insects with the weakly resistant phenotype are common in eastern Australia (65.2 of samples), although the frequency of resistant phenotypes within samples was typically low (median of 2.3). The population cage approach was used to investigate the possibility that carrying the alleles for weak resistance incurs a fitness cost. Hybridized populations were initiated using a resistant strain and either of two different susceptible strains. There was no evidence of a fitness cost based on the frequency of susceptible phenotypes in hybridized populations that were reared for seven generations without exposure to phosphine. This suggests that resistant alleles will tend to persist in field populations that have undergone selection even if selection pressure is removed. The prevalence of resistance is a warning that this species has been subject to considerable selection pressure and that effective resistance management practices are needed to address this problem. The resistance prevalence data also provide a basis against which to measure management success.

Flight directionality of Tribolium castaneum soon after take-off under glasshouse and field conditions

Flight directionality of the rust-red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), was investigated under glasshouse and field conditions using sticky traps placed around dense experimental infestations of T. castaneum derived from field-collected samples. Although beetles of this species are known to fly quite readily, information on flight of beetles away from grain resources is limited. Under still glasshouse conditions, T. castaneum does not demonstrate strong horizontal or vertical trajectories in their initial flight behaviour. Flight was significantly directional in half of the replicates, but trapped beetles were only weakly concentrated around the mean direction of flight. In the field, by contrast, emigration of T. castaneum was strongly directional soon after flight initiation. The mean vector lengths were generally >0.5 which indicates that trapped beetles were strongly concentrated around the calculated mean flight direction. A circular-circular regression of mean flight vs. mean downwind direction suggested that flight direction was generally correlated with downwind direction. The mean height at which T. castaneum individuals initially flew was 115.4 ± 7.0 cm, with 58.3% of beetles caught no more than 1 m above the ground. The height at which beetles were trapped did not correlate with wind speed at the time of sampling, but the data do indicate that wind speed significantly affected T. castaneum flight initiation, because no beetles (or very few; no more than three) were trapped in the field when the mean wind speed was above 3 m s−1. This study thus demonstrates that wind speed and direction are both important aspects of flight behaviour of T. castaneum, and therefore of the spatio-temporal dynamics of this species.

A digital beehive could warn beekeepers when their hives are under attack

Honey bees are in decline, and the current method of keeping them can be disruptive to a colony. But new designs allow beekeepers to monitor a hive remotely, even sniff out disease and pests.

Polypore assemblages in boreal old-growth forests, and associated Coleoptera

This thesis examines assemblages of wood-decaying fungi in Finnish old-growth forests, and patterns of species interactions between fruit bodies of wood-rotting Basidiomycetes and associated Coleoptera. The present work is a summary of four original publications and a manuscript, which are based on empirical observations and deal with the prevalence of polypores in old-growth forests, and fungicolous Coleoptera. The study area consists of eleven old-growth, mostly spruce- and pine-dominated, protected forests rich in dead wood in northern and southeastern Finland. Supplementary data on fungus beetle interactions were collected in southern Finland and the Åland Islands. 11251 observations of fruit bodies from 153 polypore species were made in 789 forest compartments. Almost a half of the polypore species demonstrated a distinct northern or southeastern trend of prevalence. Polypores with a northern prevalence profile were in extreme cases totally absent from the Southeast, although almost uniformly present in the North. These were Onnia leporina, Climacocystis borealis, Antrodiella pallasii, Skeletocutis chrysella, Oligoporus parvus, Skeletocutis lilacina, and Junghuhnia collabens. Species with higher prevalence in the southeastern sites were Bjerkandera adusta, Inonotus radiatus, Trichaptum pargamenum, Antrodia macra, and Phellinus punctatus. 198 (86%) species of Finnish polypores were examined for associated Coleoptera. Adult beetles were collected from polypore basidiocarps in the wild, while their larvae were reared to adulthood in the lab. Spatial and temporal parallels between the properties of polypore fruit body and the species composition of Coleoptera in fungus beetle interactions were discussed. New data on the biology of individual species of fungivorous Coleoptera were collected. 116 species (50% of Finnish polypore mycota) were found to host adults and/or larvae of 179 species from 20 Coleoptera families. Many new fungus beetle interactions were found among the 614 species pairs; these included 491 polypore fruit body adult Coleoptera species co-occurrences, and 122 fruit body larva interrelations. 82 (41%) polypore species were neither visited nor colonized by Coleoptera. The total number of polyporicolous beetles in Finland is expected to reach 300 species.

Effects of management and landscape structure on biodiversity in boreal agricultural farmland

Intensified agricultural practises introduced after the Second World War are identified as a major cause of global biodiversity declines. In several European countries agri-environment support schemes have been introduced to counteract the ongoing biodiversity declines. Farmers participating in agri-environment schemes are financially compensated for decreasing the intensity of farming practises leading to smaller yields and lower income. The Finnish agri-environment support scheme is composed of a set of measures, such as widened field margins along main ditches (obligatory measure), management of features increasing landscape diversity, management of semi-natural grasslands, and organic farming (special agreement measures). The magnitude of the benefits for biodiversity depends on landscape context and the properties of individual schemes. In this thesis I studied whether one agri-environment scheme, organic farming, is beneficial for species diversity and abundance of diurnal lepidopterans, bumblebees, carabid beetles and arable weeds. I found that organic farming did not enhance species richness of selected insect taxa, although bumblebee species richness tended to be higher in organic farms. Abundance of lepidopterans and bumblebees was not enhanced by organic farming, but carabid beetle abundance was higher in mixed farms with both cereal crop production and animal husbandry. Both species richness and abundance of arable weeds were higher in organic farms. My second objective was to study how landscape structure shapes farmland butterfly communities. I found that the percentage of habitat specialists and species with poor dispersal abilities in butterfly assemblages decreased with increasing arable field cover, leading to a dramatic decrease in butterfly beta diversity. In field boundaries local species richness of butterflies was linearly related to landscape species richness in geographic regions with high arable field cover, indicating that butterfly species richness in field boundaries is more limited by landscape factors than local habitat factors. In study landscapes containing semi-natural grasslands the relationship decelerated at high landscape species richness, suggesting that local species richness of butterflies in field boundaries is limited by habitat factors (demanding habitat specialists that occurred in semi-natural grasslands were absent in field margins). My results suggest that management options in field margins will affect mainly generalists, and species with good dispersal abilities, in landscapes with high arable field cover. Habitat specialists and species with poor dispersal abilities may benefit of management options if these are applied in the vicinity of source populations.

Ecological consequences of genetic modifications - an invasion analysis approach

Biological invasions are considered as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity, as they may lead to disruption and homogenization of natural communities, and in the worst case, to native species extinctions. The introduction of gene modified organisms (GMOs) to agricultural, fisheries and forestry practices brings them into contact with natural populations. GMOs may appear as new invasive species if they are able to (1) invade into natural habitats or (2) hybridize with their wild relatives. The benefits of GMOs, such as increased yield or decreased use of insecticides or herbicides in cultivation, may thus be reduced due the potential risks they may cause. A careful ecological risk analysis therefore has to precede any responsible GMO introduction. In this thesis I study ecological invasion in relation to GMOs, and what kind of consequences invasion may have in natural populations. A set of theoretical models that combine life-history evolution, population dynamics, and population genetics were developed for the hazard identification part of ecological risks assessment of GMOs. In addition, the potential benefits of GMOs in management of an invasive pest were analyzed. In the first study I showed that a population that is fluctuating due to scramble-type density dependence (due to, e.g., nutrient competition in plants) may be invaded by a population that is relatively more limited by a resource (e.g., light in plants) that is a cause of contest-type density dependence. This result emphasises the higher risk of invasion in unstable environments. The next two studies focused on escape of a growth hormone (GH) transgenic fish into a natural population. The results showed that previous models may have given too pessimistic a view of the so called Trojan gene -effect, where the invading genotype is harmful for the population as a whole. The previously suggested population extinctions did not occur in my studies, since the changes in mating preferences caused by the GH-fish were be ameliorated by decreased level of competition. The GH-invaders may also have to exceed a threshold density before invasion can be successful. I also showed that the prevalence of mature parr (aka. sneaker) strategy among GH-fish may have clear effect on invasion outcome. The fourth study assessed the risks and developed methods against the invasion of the Colorado Potato Beetle (CPB, Leptinotarsa decemlineata). I showed that the eradication of CPB is most important for the prevention of their establishment, but the cultivation of transgenic Bt-potato could also be effective. In general, my results emphasise that invasion of transgenic species or genotypes to be possible under certain realistic conditions and resulting in competitive exclusion, population decline through outbreeding depression and genotypic displacement of native species. Ecological risk assessment should regard the decline and displacement of the wild genotype by an introduced one as a consequence that is as serious as the population extinction. It will also be crucial to take into account different kinds of behavioural differences among species when assessing the possible hazards that GMOs may cause if escaped. The benefits found of GMO crops effectiveness in pest management may also be too optimistic since CPB may evolve resistance to Bt-toxin. The models in this thesis could be further applied in case specific risk assessment of GMOs by supplementing them with detailed data of the species biology, the effect of the transgene introduced to the species, and also the characteristics of the populations or the environments in the risk of being invaded.

Mutations as molecular tools : The metabolic-rate dependent molecular clock and DNA barcoding of allied species

Mutation and recombination are the fundamental processes leading to genetic variation in natural populations. This variation forms the raw material for evolution through natural selection and drift. Therefore, studying mutation rates may reveal information about evolutionary histories as well as phylogenetic interrelationships of organisms. In this thesis two molecular tools, DNA barcoding and the molecular clock were examined. In the first part, the efficiency of mutations to delineate closely related species was tested and the implications for conservation practices were assessed. The second part investigated the proposition that a constant mutation rate exists within invertebrates, in form of a metabolic-rate dependent molecular clock, which can be applied to accurately date speciation events. DNA barcoding aspires to be an efficient technique to not only distinguish between species but also reveal population-level variation solely relying on mutations found on a short stretch of a single gene. In this thesis barcoding was applied to discriminate between Hylochares populations from Russian Karelia and new Hylochares findings from the greater Helsinki region in Finland. Although barcoding failed to delineate the two reproductively isolated groups, their distinct morphological features and differing life-history traits led to their classification as two closely related, although separate species. The lack of genetic differentiation appears to be due to a recent divergence event not yet reflected in the beetles molecular make-up. Thus, the Russian Hylochares was described as a new species. The Finnish species, previously considered as locally extinct, was recognized as endangered. Even if, due to their identical genetic make-up, the populations had been regarded as conspecific, conservation strategies based on prior knowledge from Russia would not have guaranteed the survival of the Finnish beetle. Therefore, new conservation actions based on detailed studies of the biology and life-history of the Finnish Hylochares were conducted to protect this endemic rarity in Finland. The idea behind the strict molecular clock is that mutation rates are constant over evolutionary time and may thus be used to infer species divergence dates. However, one of the most recent theories argues that a strict clock does not tick per unit of time but that it has a constant substitution rate per unit of mass-specific metabolic energy. Therefore, according to this hypothesis, molecular clocks have to be recalibrated taking body size and temperature into account. This thesis tested the temperature effect on mutation rates in equally sized invertebrates. For the first dataset (family Eucnemidae, Coleoptera) the phylogenetic interrelationships and evolutionary history of the genus Arrhipis had to be inferred before the influence of temperature on substitution rates could be studied. Further, a second, larger invertebrate dataset (family Syrphidae, Diptera) was employed. Several methodological approaches, a number of genes and multiple molecular clock models revealed that there was no consistent relationship between temperature and mutation rate for the taxa under study. Thus, the body size effect, observed in vertebrates but controversial for invertebrates, rather than temperature may be the underlying driving force behind the metabolic-rate dependent molecular clock. Therefore, the metabolic-rate dependent molecular clock does not hold for the here studied invertebrate groups. This thesis emphasizes that molecular techniques relying on mutation rates have to be applied with caution. Whereas they may work satisfactorily under certain conditions for specific taxa, they may fail for others. The molecular clock as well as DNA barcoding should incorporate all the information and data available to obtain comprehensive estimations of the existing biodiversity and its evolutionary history.

Phylogenetics, taxon delimitation and phylogenetic diversity

Throughout the history of Linnean taxonomy, species have been described with varying degrees of justification. Many descriptions have been based on only a few ambiguous morphological characters. Moreover, species have been considered natural, well-defined units whereas higher taxa have been treated as disparate, non-existent creations. In the present thesis a few such cases were studied in detail. Often the species-level descriptions were based on only a few specimens and the variation previously thought to be interspecific was found to be intraspecific. In some cases morphological characters were sufficient to resolve the evolutionary relationships between the taxa, but generally more resolution was gained by the addition of molecular evidence. However, both morphological and molecular data were found to be deceptive in some cases. The DNA sequences of morphologically similar specimens were found to differ distinctly in some cases, whereas in other closely related species the morphology of specimens with identical DNA sequences differed substantially. This study counsels caution when evolutionary relationships are being studied utilizing only one source of evidence or a very limited number of characters (e.g. barcoding). Moreover, it emphasizes the importance of high quality data as well as the utilization of proper methods when making scientific inferences. Properly conducted analyses produce robust results that can be utilized in numerous interesting ways. The present thesis considered two such extensions of systematics. A novel hypothesis on the origin of bioluminescence in Elateriformia beetles is presented, tying it to the development of the clicking mechanism in the ancestors of these animals. An entirely different type of extension of systematics is the proposed high value of the white sand forests in maintaining the diversity of beetles in the Peruvian Amazon. White sand forests are under growing pressure from human activities that lead to deforestation. They were found to harbor an extremely diverse beetle fauna and many taxa were specialists living only in this unique habitat. In comparison to the predominant clay soil forests, considerably more elateroid beetles belonging to all studied taxonomic levels (species, genus, tribus, and subfamily) were collected in white sand forests. This evolutionary diversity is hypothesized to be due to a combination of factors: (1) the forest structure, which favors the fungus-plant interactions important for the elateroid beetles, (2) the old age of the forest type favoring survival of many evolutionary lineages and (3) the widespread distribution and fragmentation of the forests in the Miocene, favoring speciation.

If dung beetles (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) arose in association with dinosaurs, did they also suffer a mass co-extinction at the K-Pg boundary?

The evolutionary success of beetles and numerous other terrestrial insects is generally attributed to co-radiation with flowering plants but most studies have focused on herbivorous or pollinating insects. Non-herbivores represent a significant proportion of beetle diversity yet potential factors that influence their diversification have been largely unexamined. In the present study, we examine the factors driving diversification within the Scarabaeidae, a speciose beetle family with a range of both herbivorous and non-herbivorous ecologies. In particular, it has been long debated whether the key event in the evolution of dung beetles (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) was an adaptation to feeding on dinosaur or mammalian dung. Here we present molecular evidence to show that the origin of dung beetles occurred in the middle of the Cretaceous, likely in association with dinosaur dung, but more surprisingly the timing is consistent with the rise of the angiosperms. We hypothesize that the switch in dinosaur diet to incorporate more nutritious and less fibrous angiosperm foliage provided a palatable dung source that ultimately created a new niche for diversification. Given the well-accepted mass extinction of non-avian dinosaurs at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, we examine a potential co-extinction of dung beetles due to the loss of an important evolutionary resource, i.e., dinosaur dung. The biogeography of dung beetles is also examined to explore the previously proposed "out of Africa" hypothesis. Given the inferred age of Scarabaeinae as originating in the Lower Cretaceous, the major radiation of dung feeders prior to the Cenomanian, and the early divergence of both African and Gondwanan lineages, we hypothesise that that faunal exchange between Africa and Gondwanaland occurred during the earliest evolution of the Scarabaeinae. Therefore we propose that both Gondwanan vicariance and dispersal of African lineages is responsible for present day distribution of scarabaeine dung beetles and provide examples.

Studies of fungi associated with Tomicus piniperda L. in Finland

The Scots pine bark beetle, Tomicus piniperda is a secondary colonizer of pine and other conifers. It is a native species from Europe and Asia that was recently introduced in North America. Although it is necessary to understand this insect's interactions with other organisms, few studies have focussed on its fungal associates. This study focused on the effect of latitude in the occurrence of fungi associated with T. piniperda. T. piniperda were collected from Pinus sylvestris in Northern (Rovaniemi) and Southern (Hyytiala) Finland. Both endo- and epi- mycota were isolated. The fungi were identified using a combination of morphological features and molecular data. The results revealed a great diversity of fungi species associated with T. piniperda, with a total of 3073 isolates representing 23 species. The most frequently isolated fungi in the bark beetles from Northern Finland were Beauvaria bassiana, Kuraishia sp. and Penicillium sp. whereas P. brevicompactum and Mortierella sp. were mostly observed in the South. Ophiostoma canum and O. minus were also observed. The number of isolates per insect in the north was 2.83 epi- and 2.38 for endo-mycota fungus. In the south, the number of isolates per insect was 4.1 for epi- and 3.5 for endo-mycota. Statistical analysis indicated that there was significant differences in fungal populations associated with the beetles in Southern and Northern Finland. There was however no significant difference between the epi- and endo-mycota fungal populations. The highest richness and diversity of the fungal species was observed in the South. However, the overall fungal diversity index analysis revealed that the mycobiota was undersampled.

Kymmenen teollisesti merkittävän puulajin kuoriuutteiden mahdollisuudet tuholaistorjunnassa

Metsäteollisuudesta kertyy vuosittain suuria määriä ylijäämämateriaalia, kuten puun kuorta ja oksia.Ylimääräinen aines käytetään pääasiassa energiantuotantoon, mutta uusia soveltamismahdollisuuksia kaivataan. Kuoren on havaittu olevan potentiaalinen lähde monille bioaktiivisille yhdisteille, joille olisi käyttöä esimerkiksi lääke- ja kemianteollisuudessa sekä maa-, metsä- ja puutarhatuotannon tuholaistorjunnassa. Tutkimus on osa Euroopan Unionin rahoittamaa ForestSpeCs-projektia, jonka tarkoituksena on selvittää metsäteollisuuden ylijäämämateriaalien vaihtoehtoisia käyttötapoja. Valittujen kymmenen teollisesti merkittävän pohjoisen puulajin (Abies nephrolepis, Betula pendula, Larix decidua, L. gmelinii, L. sibirica, Picea abies, P. ajanensis, P. pumila, Pinus sylvestris, Populus tremula) kuoresta uutettujen aineiden soveltuvuutta syönninestoaineeksi testattiin kaaliperhosen (Pieris brassicae L.) ja krysanteemiyökkösen (Spodoptera littoralis Boisduval) toukilla sekä osittain sinappikuoriaisella (Phaedon cochloreae Fabricius) ja idänlehtikuoriaisella (Agelastica alni L.). Uutteet valmistettiin yhteistyössä projektin ryhmien avulla tai itsenäisesti erilaisin menetelmin. Testaukset tehtiin laboratorio-oloissa käyttäen lehtikiekkojen valintabiotestiä sekä karkeilla uutteilla että niistä erotelluilla yksittäisillä yhdisteillä. Tehdyistä mittauksista laskettiin syönninestoindeksit (FDI). Tulosten perusteella lähes kaikki testatut uutteet vaikuttivat ainakin jossain määrin kohdehyönteisen syöntikäyttäytymiseen. Hieman yli puolet kaaliperhosella testatuista 46 uutteesta aiheuttivat yli 50 % syönnineston eli kaaliperhonen suosi kontrollilehtiä uutteella käsiteltyjä todennäköisemmin. Krysanteemiyökkösellä yli 50 %:n syönnineston aiheuttivat vain seitsemän testatuista 56 uutteesta. Lisäksi kolme uutetta lisäsi käsiteltyjen kiekkojen syöntiä merkittävästi. Idänlehtikuoriaistoukat ja -aikuiset karttoivat erityisesti abietiinihapolla käsiteltyjä lehtiä. Sinappikuoriaisella testatut uutteet toimivat myös lupaavasti. Testattujen puulajien kuoresta on mahdollista uuttaa biologisesti aktiivisia yhdisteitä, mutta tuholaistorjunnan kannalta oikeiden pitoisuuksien ja tehokkaiden uuttomenetelmien löytäminen vaatii jatkotutkimuksia. Kuoren sisältämien yhdisteiden laatu ja määrä vaihtelevat monien tekijöiden, kuten ympäristön ja genetiikan vaikutuksesta. Hyönteisten sietokyky vaihtelee myös paljon lajeittain ja yksilöidenkin välillä on eroja. Uutteista valmistettavia torjunta-aineita olisi kuitenkin mahdollista sisällyttää esimerkiksi integroituun torjuntaan muiden menetelmien rinnalle tulevaisuudessa.

Onttojen puiden lahopuukovakuoriaiset — kolmen pyydystyypin vertailu

Vanhat ja ontot puut ovat tärkeä elinympäristö monelle lahopuusta riippuvaiselle eliölajille. Onttoihin puihin on erikoistunut suuri määrä myös vaarantuneita ja harvinaisia hyönteislajeja, jotka elävät puun onkalon seinämillä tai onkalon pohjalle kerääntyvässä orgaanisessa aineksessa, ns. mulmissa. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää, mikä kolmesta pyydystyypistä (ikkuna-, vuoka- ja kuoppapyydys) soveltuu parhaiten onttojen puiden lahopuukovakuoriaisten pyyntiin. Lisäksi tavoitteena oli kartoittaa hyönteisnäytteiden ensimmäiseen laboratoriokäsittelyyn vaadittua aikaa. Tutkimuksessa oli mukana vanhoja rungostaan onttoutuneita lehmuksia, tammia ja vaahteroita pääkaupunkiseudun puisto- ja kartanoalueilta. Puiden onkaloiden sisään aseteltiin ikkuna-, vuoka- ja kuoppapyydyksiä, kaksi kutakin tyyppiä ja ne tyhjennettiin kolmen viikon välein touko-heinäkuussa 2006. Pyydyksiä oli siis yhteensä 90 per pyyntijakso. Kun näytteistä eroteltiin halutut hyönteislahkot (mukaanlukien kovakuoriaiset) niiden käsittelyyn käytetty aika kirjattiin ylös. Aineistosta tunnistettiin yhteensä 3825 kovakuoriaisyksilöä ja 212 lajia, joista lahopuusta riippuvaisia oli yhteensä 3398 yksilöä ja 121 lajia. Ikkunapyydyksissä esiintyi yhteensä 1639 yksilöä ja 140 lajia, vuokapyydyksissä 1506 yksilöä ja 134 lajia, kuoppapyydyksissä 680 yksilöä ja 111 lajia. Näytteiden käsittelyaikojen keskiarvot olivat 48,3 minuuttia ikkunapyydykselle, 65,5 minuuttia vuokapyydykselle ja 34,1 kuoppapyydykselle. Lajistokoostumuksen huomioiva ?-diversiteetti erosi huomattavasti pyydysten välillä, se oli 36,5 % ikkuna- ja vuokapyydysten välillä, 13,1 % ikkuna- ja kuoppapyydysten välillä ja 14,2 % vuoka- ja kuoppapyydysten välillä. Ikkuna- ja vuokapyydysten välillä ei havaittu tilastollisesti merkitsevää eroa saproksyylilajien (p<0,05), -yksilöiden (p<0,05) tai käsittelyaikojen (p<0,05) keskiarvoissa. Ikkuna- ja vuokapyydyksillä saatiin keskimäärin selvästi enemmän saproksyylilajeja ja –yksilöitä kuoppapyydykseen verrattuna. Kuoppapyydyksellä saatiin kokonaisyksilömäärään verrattuna suhteellisesti vähemmän saproksyylejä (59 %) kuin ikkuna- (69 %) ja vuokapyydyksillä (71 %). Ikkunapyydykset olivat tehokkain pyydystyyppi vertailtaessa pyydysten keräämää saproksyyliyksilömäärää suhteessa aineiston käsittelyn vaatimaan aikaan. Tehokkuus (yksilöä minuutissa) ikkunapyydykselle oli 0,74, vuokapyydykselle 0,43 ja kuoppapyydykselle 0,21. Ikkunapyydyksiä ei ole aikaisemmin käytetty puun onkalon sisällä hyönteisiä pyydettäessä vaan ne ovat aikaisemmissa tutkimuksissa roikkuneet onkalon ulkopuolella. Ikkunapyydykset kuitenkin toimivat erinomaisesti myös onkaloiden sisällä. Ikkuna- sekä vuokapyydys toimivatkin selkeästi paremmin lahopuukovakuoriaisten pyynnissä verrattuna kuoppapyydykseen, jonka poisjättäminen olisi kuitenkin tuottanut huomattavasti lajiköyhemmän aineiston. Mahdollisimman monimuotoisen onttojen puiden lahopuukovakuoriaislajiston keräämiseksi tulisi käyttää ikkuna- tai vuokapyydyksiä yhdessä kuoppapyydysten kanssa.

Dimorfismo sexual e polimorfismo no gênero Ptychoderes Schoenherr, 1823 (Coleoptera Anthribidae, Anthribinae, Ptychoderini)

O dimorfismo sexual exibido por machos polifênicos em algumas espécies do gênero Ptychoderes envolve variação no rostro, antena e ventritos. A existência de polifenismo pode ser um importante componente no processo evolutivo por meio de novidades morfológicas e comportamentais. O objetivo desse estudo foi determinar a variação em caracteres morfométricos, polifenismo em machos, variação de estruturas com conhecido dimorfismo sexual, possíveis padrões alométricos e testar estas inferências para Ptychoderes através do mapeamento do dimorfismo sexual e de machos em uma reconstrução filogenética de Ptychoderes usando Mesquite 2.04. Foram medidas 23 variáveis morfométricas em 510 espécimes com as seguintes análises realizadas: análises de cluster, analises de componentes principais (PCA), analise de variáveis canônicas (AVC), análise de regressão por eixo maior reduzido (RMA). Cada tipo de dimorfismo foi mapeado em uma filogenia prévia como dois estados separados usando parcimônia. Para todas as espécies o dimorfismo sexual apresentou diferenças significativas entre os sexos com relação aos segmentos antenais (II- X).O compriemtno do rosto e ventrito V foram confirmados como indicativos de dimorfismo sexual (exceto em P. jordani). A única espécie em que não ocorreu machos polifenicos foi P. depressus. Nas outras espécies machos grandes e pequenos diferem significantemente para muitas variáveis com similaridades e diferenças. Na ACP, o primeiro componente (PC1) apresentou alta porcentagem de variância nos dados de todas as espécies; apresentou loadings de mesmo sinal sugerindo diferenças relacionadas ao tamanho para as espécies P. jordani, P. depressus, P. virgatus, P. mixtus e P. callosus e para as espécies P. viridanus, P. antiquus, P. elongates e P. nebulosus apresentou loadings positivos e negativos sugerindo diferenças relacionadas a forma (alometria). O PC2 apresentou loadings positivos e negativos para todas as espécies, um provável componente alométricos. A AVC confirmou os grupos: machos grandes, machos pequenos e fêmeas quando estes ocorreram. Nós encontramos diferentes padrões alométricos para todas as espécies com diferenças e semelhanças entre as espécies. Todos esses resultados confirmam a hipótese de polifenismo em machos e dimorfismo sexual para Ptychhoderes. A análise dos padrões alométricos para o dimorfismo sexual revelou alometria positiva para o comprimento do rostro (CR1) em machos e fêmeas, com os ventritos apenas em machos. Padrões alométricos positivos relacionados ao polifenismo nos antenômeros foram confirmados para os machos grandes e pequenos de quase todas as espécies exceto em P. nebulosus. O ancestral de clados na filogenia de Ptychoderes foi inferido para machos polifênicos (exceto P. depressus) com variáveis no rostro, antenas e ventritos indicativas de dimorfismo sexual com alometria positiva. Estes padrões poderiam estar ligados com o comportamento de proteção das fêemeas realizados por machos grandes durante a oviposição.

Results of the Austrian-Ceylonese hydrobiological mission 1970 of the 1st Zoological Institute of the University of Vienna (Austria) and the Department of Zoology of the Vidyalankara Campus of the University of Ceylon. Pt. 11. Larvae and pupae of water beetles collected from the islands of Ceylon

Water beetle larvae and pupae were collected from the lotic biotopes in localities of the southern part of Ceylon. The species are described and findings are related to previous investigations. The following families were represented: Dytiscidae, Gyrinidae, Hydrophilidae, Helodidae, Dascillidae (Eubrianacinae), Dryopidae and Lampyridae.