β-Glucan contents of groats of different oat cultivars in official variety, in organic cultivation, and in nitrogen fertilization trials in Finland

Selostus: Kauran ytimen β-glukaanipitoisuus

Bioavailability of sinking organic matter in the Blanes canyon and the adjacent open slope (NW Mediterranean Sea)

Submarine canyons are sites of intense energy and material exchange between the shelf and the deep adjacent basins. To test the hypothesis that active submarine canyons represent preferential conduits of available food for the deep-sea benthos, two mooring lines were deployed at 1200 m depth from November 2008 to November 2009 inside the Blanes canyon and on the adjacent open slope (Catalan Margin, NW Mediterranean Sea). We investigated the fluxes, biochemical composition and food quality of sinking organic carbon (OC). OC fluxes in the canyon and the open slope varied among sampling periods, though not onsistently in the two sites. In particular, while in the open slope the highest OC fluxes were observed in August 2009, in the canyon the highest OC fluxes occurred in April-May 2009. For almost the entire study period, the OC fluxes in the canyon were significantly higher than those in the open slope, whereas OC contents of sinking particles collected in the open slope were consistently higher than those in the canyon. This result confirms that submarine canyons are effective conveyors of OC to the deep sea. Particles transferred to the deep sea floor through the canyons are predominantly of inorganic origin, significantly higher than that reaching the open slope at a similar water depth. Using multivariate statistical tests, two major clusters of sampling periods were identified: one in the canyon that grouped trap samples collected in December 2008, oncurrently with the occurrence of a major storm at the sea surface, and associated with increased fluxes of nutritionally available particles from the upper shelf. Another cluster grouped samples from both the canyon and the open slope collected in March 2009, concurrently with the occurrence of the seasonal phytoplankton bloom at the sea surface, and associated with increased fluxes of total phytopigments. Our results confirm the key ecological role of submarine canyons for the functioning of deep-sea ecosystems, and highlight the importance of canyons in linking episodic storms and primary production occurring at the sea surface to the deep sea floor.

Hydrology, light and the use of organic and inorganic materials as structuring factors of biological communities in Mediterranean streams

Hydrological disturbances, light availability and nutrients are the most relevant factors determining the structure of the biological communities in Mediterranean rivers. While some hydrological disturbances are able to induce catastrophic effects, which may cause a complete reset in physical and biological conditions, continued enrichment or changes in light availability are factors leading to the progressive shift in the communities of autotrophs and heterotrophs in the systems. Primary production in Mediterranean streams shows relevant seasonal changes which mainly follows the variations in light availability. In most forested streams, the algal community is shade-adapted. Nutrient enrichment (especially phosphorus) leads to marked increases in primary production, but this increase is not lineal and there is a saturation of algal biomass even in the most enriched systems. The heterotrophs (bacteria, fungi) are related to the pattern of DOC availability (which most depends on the seasonal discharge and leaf fall dynamics) and to the available substrata in the stream. It has been repeatedly observed that shorttime increases of extracellular enzyme activities are related to the accumulation of autochthonous (algal) and/or allochthonous (leaves) organic matter on the streambed during spring and summer, this being more remarkable in dry than in wetter years. Flow reduction favours detritus concentration in pools, and the subsequent increase in the density and biomass of the macroinvertebrate community. In Mediterranean streams collectors are accounting for the highest density and biomass, this being more remarkable in the least permanent systems, in accordance with the effect of floods on the organic matter availability. Nutrients, through the effect on the primary producers, also affect the trophic food web in the streams by favouring the predominance of grazers

Astringent Food Compounds and Their Interactions with Taste Properties

Astringency is traditionally thought to be induced by plant tannins in foods. Because of this current research concerning the mechanism of astringency is focused on tannin‐protein interactions and thus on precipitation, which may be perceived by mechanoreceptors. However, astringency is elicited by a wide range of different phenolic compounds, as well as, some non‐phenolic compounds in various foods. Many ellagitannins or smaller compounds that contribute to astringent properties do not interact with salivary proteins and may be directly perceived through some receptors. Generally, the higher degree of polymerization of proanthocyanidins can be associated with more intense astringency. However, the astringent properties of smaller phenolic compounds may not be directly predicted from the structure of a compound, although glycosylation has a significant role. The astringency of organic acids may be directly linked to the perception of sourness, and this increases along with decreasing pH. Astringency can be divided into different sub‐qualities, including even other qualities than traditional mouth‐drying, puckering or roughing sensations. Astringency is often accompanied by bitter or sour or both taste properties. The different sub‐qualities can be influenced by different astringent compounds. In general, the glycolysation of the phenolic compound results in more velvety and smooth mouthdrying astringency. Flavonol glycosides and other flavonoid compounds and ellagitannins contribute to this velvety mouthdrying astringency. Additionally, they often lack the bitter properties. Proanthocyanidins and phenolic acids elicit more puckering and roughing astringency with some additional bitter properties. Quercetin 3‐O‐rutinoside, along with other quercetin glycosides, is among the key astringent compounds in black tea and red currants. In foods, there are always various other additional attributes that are perceived at the same with astringency. Astringent compounds themselves may have other sensory characteristics, such as bitter or sour properties, or they may enhance or suppress other sensory properties. Components contributing to these other properties, such as sugars, may also have similar effects on astringent sensations. Food components eliciting sweetness or fattiness or some polymeric polysaccharides can be used to mask astringent subqualities. Astringency can generally be referred to as a negative contributor to the liking of various foods. On the other hand, perceptions of astringent properties can vary among individuals. Many genetic factors that influence perceptions of taste properties, such as variations in perceiving a bitter taste or variations in saliva, may also effect the perception of astringency. Individuals who are more sensitive to different sensations may notice the differences between astringent properties more clearly. This may not have effects on the overall perception of astringency. However, in many cases, the liking of astringent foods may need to be learned by repetitive exposure. Astringency is often among the key sensory properties forming the unique overall flavour of certain foods, and therefore it also influences whether or not a food is liked. In many cases, astringency may be an important sub‐property suppressed by other more abundant sensory properties, but it may still have a significant contribution to the overall flavour and thus consumer preferences. The results of the practical work of this thesis show that the astringent phenolic compounds are mostly located in the skin fractions of black currants, crowberries and bilberries (publications I–III). The skin fractions themselves are rather tasteless. However, the astringent phenolic compounds can be efficiently removed from these skin fractions by consecutive ethanol extractions. Berries contain a wide range of different flavonol glycosides, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and anthocyanins and some of them strongly contribute to the different astringent and bitterness properties. Sweetness and sourness are located in the juice fractions along with the majority of sugars and fruit acids. The sweet and sour properties of the juice may be used to mask the astringent and bitterness properties of the extracts. Enzymatic treatments increase the astringent properties and fermented flavour of the black currant juice and decrease sweetness and freshness due to the effects on chemical compositions (IV). Sourness and sweetness are positive contributors to the liking of crowberry and bilberry fractions, whereas bitterness is more negative (V). Some astringent properties in berries are clearly negative factors, whereas some may be more positive. The liking of berries is strongly influenced by various consumer background factors, such as motives and health concerns. The liking of berries and berry fractions may also be affected by genetic factors, such as variations in the gene hTAS2R38, which codes bitter taste receptors (V).

Evapotranspiration and crop coefficient for potato in organic farming

The aim of this study was to quantify the water consumption and the crop coefficients (Kc) for the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), in Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro (RJ), Brazil, under organic management, and to simulate the crop evapotranspiration (ETc) using the Kc obtained in the field and the ones recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The water consumption was obtained through soil water balance, using TDR probes installed at 0.15m and 0.30m deep. At the different stages of development, the Kc was determined by the ratio of ETc and reference evapotranspiration, obtained by Penman-Monteith FAO 56. The crop coefficients obtained were 0.35, 0.45, 1.29 and 0.63. The accumulated ETc obtained in the field was 109.6 mm, while the ETc accumulated from FAO's Kc were 142.2 and 138mm, respectively, considering the classical values and the values adjusted to the local climatic conditions. The simulation of water consumption based on meteorological data of historical series from 1961 to 2007 provided higher value of ETc when compared with the one obtained in the field. From the meteorological data of historical series, it was observed that the use of Kc recommended by FAO may overestimate the amount of irrigation water by 9%, over the same growing season.

Comparative lifecycle assessment on organic and conventional carrots – case: Carrots from South-Savo and imported carrots from Italy

Organic farming is perceived to be an environmental friendly method of food production, thus assumed to be an alternative means of minimizing food-based environmental footprints. However, lower yield and unproductive years in organic crop rotation raise questions of whether it is really an environmentally friendly farming practice. Thus, the aim of this thesis was to examine the carbon footprint and energy demands of organic carrots cultivated and sold in South-Savo, Finland and compare them with those of local and imported conventional carrots using lifecycle assessment (LCA) as a method. From the investigation, it was found that organic carrots produced in South-Savo have the lowest GHG emissions and energy demand. The GHG emissions of local organic, local conventional and imported conventional carrots were found to be 4g CO2 eq. kgcarrots-1, 142g CO2 eq. kgcarrots-1 and 280 g CO2 eq. kgcarrots-1, respectively. On the other hand, energy demand for those carrots was found to be 1,33 MJ, 1,88 MJ and 3,68 MJ kgcarrots-1. Furthermore, it was also found that local organic carrots would have approximately similar GHG emissions as conventional counterpart if soil carbon stock change was excluded from the study.

Organic acid profile of commercial sour cassava starch

Organic acids are present in sour cassava starch ("polvilho azedo") and contribute with organoleptic and physical characteristics like aroma, flavor and the exclusive baking property, that differentiate this product from the native cassava starch. Samples of commercial sour cassava starch collected in South and Southeast Brazil were prepared for high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. The HPLC equipment had a Biorad Aminex HPX-87H column for organic acid analysis and a refractometric detector. Analysis was carried out with 0.005M sulfuric acid as mobile phase, 0.6ml/min flow rate and column temperature of 60° C. The acids quantified were lactic (0.036 to 0.813 g/100g), acetic (0 to 0.068 g/100g), propionic (0 to 0.013 g/100g) and butyric (0 to 0.057 g/100g), that are produced during the natural fermentation of cassava starch. Results showed large variation among samples, even within the same region. Some samples exhibited high acid levels, mainly lactic acid, but in these neither propionic nor butyric acids were detected. Absence of butyric acid was not expected because this is an important component of the sour cassava starch aroma, and the lack of this acid may suggest that such samples were produced without the natural fermentation step.

FUTURES OF FINNISH FOOD SYSTEM BY 2050. The perspective of resilience

Modern food systems face complex global challenges such as climate change, resource scarcities, population growth, concentration and globalization. It is not possible to forecast how all these challenges will affect food systems, but futures research methods provide possibilities to enable better understanding of possible futures and that way increases futures awareness. In this thesis, the two-round online Delphi method was utilized to research experts’ opinions about the present and the future resilience of the Finnish food system up to 2050. The first round questionnaire was constructed based on the resilience indicators developed for agroecosystems. Sub-systems in the study were primary production (main focus), food industry, retail and consumption. Based on the results from the first round, the future images were constructed for primary production and food industry sub-sections. The second round asked experts’ opinion about the future images’ probability and desirability. In addition, panarchy scenarios were constructed by using the adaptive cycle and panarchy frameworks. Furthermore, a new approach to general resilience indicators was developed combining “categories” of the social ecological systems (structure, behaviors and governance) and general resilience parameters (tightness of feedbacks, modularity, diversity, the amount of change a system can withstand, capacity of learning and self- organizing behavior). The results indicate that there are strengths in the Finnish food system for building resilience. According to experts organic farms and larger farms are perceived as socially self-organized, which can promote innovations and new experimentations for adaptation to changing circumstances. In addition, organic farms are currently seen as the most ecologically self-regulated farms. There are also weaknesses in the Finnish food system restricting resilience building. It is important to reach optimal redundancy, in which efficiency and resilience are in balance. In the whole food system, retail sector will probably face the most dramatic changes in the future, especially, when panarchy scenarios and the future images are reflected. The profitability of farms is and will be a critical cornerstone of the overall resilience in primary production. All in all, the food system experts have very positive views concerning the resilience development of the Finnish food system in the future. Sometimes small and local is beautiful, sometimes large and international is more resilient. However, when probabilities and desirability of the future images were questioned, there were significant deviations. It appears that experts do not always believe desirable futures to materialize.

The Brazilian consumer's understanding and perceptions of organic vegetables: a Focus Group approach

Focus Group is a tool which generates, through interview sessions with a small number of participants, preliminary data to be used in subsequent quantitative stages. Many consumer studies use qualitative research with the aim of obtaining information and opinions on a specific product or situation. The objective of the present study was to obtain knowledge on the opinion, understanding and perception of the Brazilian consumer with respect to vegetables, focusing on organic products, using Focus Group Sessions. Four Focus Group Sessions were held with men and women in different environments, following a previously elaborated interview guide. In this study, it was observed that the consumers demonstrated being interested in having a healthy diet, based on fruit, vegetables and natural products. However, only a few declared consuming organic foods. Some participants did not know what the term organic meant, and most of them think that organic products are still very expensive, are not easily available in the supermarkets, do not have a good appearance, mainly in terms of size and packaging, and their certification is not always trustworthy. Almost all participants stated that they read package labels and among the items most observed were best-before date, nutritional information, production system and price. This study has identified important vegetable attributes perceived by the consumer, favouring the planning of a subsequent quantitative research. The results suggest that more information on the benefits of organic agriculture has to be passed on to consumers in order to contribute to a higher consumption of such products.

FUTURES OF FINNISH FOOD SYSTEM BY 2050. The perspective of resilience

Modern food systems face complex global challenges such as climate change, resource scarcities, population growth, concentration and globalization. It is not possible to forecast how all these challenges will affect food systems, but futures research methods provide possibilities to enable better understanding of possible futures and that way increases futures awareness. In this thesis, the two-round online Delphi method was utilized to research experts’ opinions about the present and the future resilience of the Finnish food system up to 2050. The first round questionnaire was constructed based on the resilience indicators developed for agroecosystems. Sub-systems in the study were primary production (main focus), food industry, retail and consumption. Based on the results from the first round, the future images were constructed for primary production and food industry sub-sections. The second round asked experts’ opinion about the future images’ probability and desirability. In addition, panarchy scenarios were constructed by using the adaptive cycle and panarchy frameworks. Furthermore, a new approach to general resilience indicators was developed combining “categories” of the social ecological systems (structure, behaviors and governance) and general resilience parameters (tightness of feedbacks, modularity, diversity, the amount of change a system can withstand, capacity of learning and self- organizing behavior). The results indicate that there are strengths in the Finnish food system for building resilience. According to experts organic farms and larger farms are perceived as socially self-organized, which can promote innovations and new experimentations for adaptation to changing circumstances. In addition, organic farms are currently seen as the most ecologically self-regulated farms. There are also weaknesses in the Finnish food system restricting resilience building. It is important to reach optimal redundancy, in which efficiency and resilience are in balance. In the whole food system, retail sector will probably face the most dramatic changes in the future, especially, when panarchy scenarios and the future images are reflected. The profitability of farms is and will be a critical cornerstone of the overall resilience in primary production. All in all, the food system experts have very positive views concerning the resilience development of the Finnish food system in the future. Sometimes small and local is beautiful, sometimes large and international is more resilient. However, when probabilities and desirability of the future images were questioned, there were significant deviations. It appears that experts do not always believe desirable futures to materialize.

The role of organic solvent amount in the lipase-catalyzed biodiesel production

This research note addresses the role of organic solvent amount in the production of fatty acid ethyl esters from soybean oil. N-hexane was chosen as solvent and two commercial immobilized lipases as catalysts, Novozym 435 and Lipozyme IM. The reactions were conducted in 6 hours, varying the solvent to oil ratio from zero to 50 (v/wt) and adopting adopting for Novozym 435: 65 ºC, enzyme concentration (E, wt%) = 5, oil to ethanol molar ratio (R) = 1:10, water addition (H, wt%) = 0, and for Lipozyme IM: 35 ºC, E = 5 wt%, R = 1:3, H = 10 wt%. For Lipozyme IM, an increase in solvent amount is shown to lead to an enhancement of reaction conversion, while a negligible effect was found for Novozym 435. When using 30 mL of solvent the reaction conversions were 88% for Lipozyme IM and 15% for Novozym 435.