Expressão dos fatores de regulação miogênica em cultura de mioblastos submetidos ao TNF-α/IFN-γ

A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) está associada a miopatia dos músculos esqueléticos dos membros, com perda da massa muscular, diminuição na proporção das fibras do tipo I (contração lenta) e aumento na proporção das fibras do tipo II (contração rápida). É provável que alterações na expressão de fatores de transcrição pertencentes à família “basic helix-loop-helix” (bHLH), da qual fazem parte a MyoD, Miogenina, Myf5 e o MRF-4, conhecidos como fatores de regulação miogênica (MRFs), sejam responsáveis pelas mudanças nos tipos de fibras. Enquanto que a Miogenina é expressa em níveis superiores aos da MyoD em músculos lentos, o oposto é verdadeiro para músculos rápidos. Similarmente, a MyoD está associada com a expressão das isoformas de miosina de cadeia pesada rápidas dos tipos IIX e IIB. Estudos in vitro, demonstraram que o TNF-α inibe a expressão de MyoD e miogenina diminuindo a atividade de genes músculo específicos. A ação do TNF-α diminuindo a expressão da MyoD mostra-se mais acentuada quando em associação com o IFN-γ, no entanto, há poucas informações na literatura a respeito do papel desta associação na expressão dos fatores de regulação miogênica, in vitro. Avaliar a expressão dos fatores de regulação miogênica, MyoD, miogenina, Myf5, e MRF-4 em cultura de mioblastos C2C12 submetidos ao TNF-α/IFN-γ. Nossos resultados mostraram um aumentou na expressão dos gene MyoD, Myf5 e miogenina sob tratamento com IFN-γ quando comparado aos grupos controle e TNF-α/IFN-γ. A expressão gênica do MRF-4 na cultura de células não foi detectada em nenhum dos grupos analisados. O GAPDH foi utilizado para normalizar os valores de expressão dos outros genes analisados. O presente estudo demonstrou que o IFN-γ exógeno administrado à culturas de mioblastos... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)

Evolution of the Metazoan Mitochondrial Replicase

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Medium Chain Fatty Acids Are Selective Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor (PPAR) gamma Activators and Pan-PPAR Partial Agonists

Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) act through peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) gamma to increase insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetes (T2DM), but deleterious effects of these ligands mean that selective modulators with improved clinical profiles are needed. We obtained a crystal structure of PPAR gamma ligand binding domain (LBD) and found that the ligand binding pocket (LBP) is occupied by bacterial medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs). We verified that MCFAs (C8-C10) bind the PPAR gamma LBD in vitro and showed that they are low-potency partial agonists that display assay-specific actions relative to TZDs; they act as very weak partial agonists in transfections with PPAR gamma LBD, stronger partial agonists with full length PPAR gamma and exhibit full blockade of PPAR gamma phosphorylation by cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (cdk5), linked to reversal of adipose tissue insulin resistance. MCFAs that bind PPAR gamma also antagonize TZD-dependent adipogenesis in vitro. X-ray structure B-factor analysis and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations suggest that MCFAs weakly stabilize C-terminal activation helix (H) 12 relative to TZDs and this effect is highly dependent on chain length. By contrast, MCFAs preferentially stabilize the H2-H3/beta-sheet region and the helix (H) 11-H12 loop relative to TZDs and we propose that MCFA assay-specific actions are linked to their unique binding mode and suggest that it may be possible to identify selective PPAR gamma modulators with useful clinical profiles among natural products.

Mode of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor gamma Activation by Luteolin

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma) is a target for treatment of type II diabetes and other conditions. PPAR gamma full agonists, such as thiazolidinediones (TZDs), are effective insulin sensitizers and anti-inflammatory agents, but their use is limited by adverse side effects. Luteolin is a flavonoid with anti-inflammatory actions that binds PPAR gamma but, unlike TZDs, does not promote adipocyte differentiation. However, previous reports suggested variously that luteolin is a PPAR gamma agonist or an antagonist. We show that luteolin exhibits weak partial agonist/antagonist activity in transfections, inhibits several PPAR gamma target genes in 3T3-L1 cells (LPL, ORL1, and CEBP alpha) and PPAR gamma-dependent adipogenesis, but activates GLUT4 to a similar degree as rosiglitazone, implying gene-specific partial agonism. The crystal structure of the PPAR gamma ligand-binding domain (LBD) reveals that luteolin occupies a buried ligand-binding pocket (LBP) but binds an inactive PPAR gamma LBD conformer and occupies a space near the beta-sheet region far from the activation helix (H12), consistent with partial agonist/antagonist actions. A single myristic acid molecule simultaneously binds the LBP, suggesting that luteolin may cooperate with other ligands to bind PPAR gamma, and molecular dynamics simulations show that luteolin and myristic acid cooperate to stabilize the Omega-loop among H2', H3, and the beta-sheet region. It is noteworthy that luteolin strongly suppresses hypertonicity-induced release of the pro-inflammatory interleukin-8 from human corneal epithelial cells and reverses reductions in transepithelial electrical resistance. This effect is PPAR gamma-dependent. We propose that activities of luteolin are related to its singular binding mode, that anti-inflammatory activity does not require H12 stabilization, and that our structure can be useful in developing safe selective PPAR gamma modulators.

Duplications of BHLHA9 are associated with ectrodactyly and tibia hemimelia inherited in non-Mendelian fashion

Background Split-hand/foot malformation (SHFM)-also known as ectrodactyly-is a congenital disorder characterised by severe malformations of the distal limbs affecting the central rays of hands and/or feet. A distinct entity termed SHFLD presents with SHFM and long bone deficiency. Mouse models suggest that a defect of the central apical ectodermal ridge leads to the phenotype. Although six different loci/mutations (SHFM1-6) have been associated with SHFM, the underlying cause in a large number of cases is still unresolved. Methods High resolution array comparative genomic hybridisation (CGH) was performed in patients with SHFLD to detect copy number changes. Candidate genes were further evaluated for expression and function during limb development by whole mount in situ hybridisation and morpholino knock-down experiments. Results Array CGH showed microduplications on chromosome 17p13.3, a locus previously associated with SHFLD. Detailed analysis of 17 families revealed that this copy number variation serves as a susceptibility factor for a highly variable phenotype with reduced penetrance, particularly in females. Compared to other known causes for SHFLD 17p duplications appear to be the most frequent cause of SHFLD. A similar to 11.8 kb minimal critical region was identified encompassing a single gene, BHLHA9, a putative basic loop helix transcription factor. Whole mount in situ hybridisation showed expression restricted to the limb bud mesenchyme underlying the apical ectodermal ridge in mouse and zebrafish embryos. Knock down of bhlha9 in zebrafish resulted in shortening of the pectoral fins. Conclusions Genomic duplications encompassing BHLHA9 are associated with SHFLD and non-Mendelian inheritance characterised by a high degree of non-penetrance with sex bias. Knock-down of bhlha9 in zebrafish causes severe reduction defects of the pectoral fin, indicating a role for this gene in limb development.

Tetracycline-inducible RNAi Knockdown of SCL (Stem Cell Leukaemia) in Mice

RNAi (RNA interference) is a powerful technology for sequence-specific targeting of mRNAs. This thesis was aimed at establishing conditions for conditional RNAi-mediated silencing first in vitro and subsequently also in transgenic mice. As a target the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor encoding gene SCL (stem cell leukaemia also known as Tal-1 or TCL5) was used. SCL is a key regulator for haematopoietic development and ectopic expression of SCL is correlated with acute T-lymphoblastic leukaemias. Loss of SCL function studies demonstrated that ab initio deletion of SCL resulted in embryonic lethality around day E9 in gestation. To be able to conditionally inactivate SCL, RNAi technology was combined with the tetracycline-dependent regulatory system. This strategy allowed to exogenously control the induction of RNAi in a reversible fashion and consequently the generation of a completely switchable RNAi knockdown. First a suitable vector allowing for co-expression of tetracycline-controlled shRNAs (small hairpin RNAs) and constitutively active EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein) was generated. This novel vector, pRNAi-EGFP, was then evaluated for EGFP expression and tetracycline-mediated expression of shRNAs. Four sequences targeting different regions within the SCL mRNA were tested for their efficiency to specifically knockdown SCL. These experiments were performed in M1 murine leukaemia cells and subsequently in the HEK 293 cell line, expressing an engineered HA-tagged SCL protein. The second assay provided a solid experimental method for determining the efficiency of different SCL-siRNA knockdown constructs in tissue culture. Western blotting analyses revealed a down regulation of SCL protein for all four tested SCL-specific target sequences albeit with different knockdown efficiencies (between 25% and 100%). Furthermore, stringent tetracycline-dependent switchability of shRNA expression was confirmed by co-transfecting the SCL-specific pRNAi-EGFP vector (SCL-siRNA) together with the HA-tagged SCL expression plasmid into the HEK 293TR /T-REx cell line constitutively expressing the tetracycline repressor (TetR). These series of experiments demonstrated tight regulation of siRNA expression without background activity. To be able to control the SCL knockdown in vivo and especially to circumvent any possible embryonic lethality a transgenic mouse line with general expression of a tetracycline repressor was needed. Two alternative methods were used to generate TetR mice. The first approach was to co-inject the tetracycline-regulated RNAi vector together with a commercially available and here specifically modified T-REx expression vector (SCL-siRNA T-REx FRT LoxP mouse line). The second method involved the generation of a TetR expressor mouse line, which was then used for donating TetR-positive oocytes for pronuclear injection of the RNAi vector (SCL-siRNA T-REx mouse line). As expected, and in agreement with data from conditional Cre-controlled adult SCL knockout mice, post-transcriptional silencing of SCL by RNAi caused a shift in the maturation of red blood cell populations. This was shown in the bone marrow and peripheral blood by FACS analysis with the red blood cell-specific TER119 and CD71 markers which can be used to define erythrocyte differentiation (Lodish plot technique). In conclusion this study established conditions for effective SCL RNAi-mediated silencing in vitro and in vivo providing an important tool for further investigations into the role of SCL and, more generally, of its in vivo function in haematopoiesis and leukaemia. Most importantly, the here acquired knowledge will now allow the establishment of other completely conditional and reversible knockdown phenotypes in mice.

Differential cell type-specific transcriptional regulation of the CYP1A1 gene

Cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) monooxygenase plays an important role in the metabolism of environmental pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HAHs). Oxidation of these compounds converts them to the metabolites that subsequently can be conjugated to hydrophilic endogenous entities e.g. glutathione. Derivates generated in this way are water soluble and can be excreted in bile or urine, which is a defense mechanism. Besides detoxification, metabolism by CYP1A1 may lead to deleterious effects since the highly reactive intermediate metabolites are able to react with DNA and thus cause mutagenic effects, as it is in the case of benzo(a) pyrene (B[a]P). CYP1A1 is normally not expressed or expressed at a very low level in the cells but it is inducible by many PAHs and HAHs e.g. by B[a]P or 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Transcriptional activation of the CYP1A1 gene is mediated by aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), a basic-helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor. In the absence of a ligand AHR stays predominantly in the cytoplasm. Ligand binding causes translocation of AHR to the nuclear compartment, its heterodimerization with another bHLH protein, the aryl hydrocarbon nuclear translocator (ARNT) and binding of the AHR/ARNT heterodimer to a DNA motif designated dioxin responsive element (DRE). This process leads to the transcriptional activation of the responsive genes containing DREs in their regulatory regions, e.g. that coding for CYP1A1. TCDD is the most potent known agonist of AHR. Since it is not metabolized by the activated enzymes, exposure to this compound leads to a persisting activation of AHR resulting in diverse toxic effects in the organism. To enlighten the molecular mechanisms that mediate the toxicity of xenobiotics like TCDD and related compounds, the AHR-dependent regulation of the CYP1A1 gene was investigated in two cell lines: human cervix carcinoma (HeLa) and mouse hepatoma (Hepa). Study of AHR activation and its consequence concerning expression of the CYP1A1 enzyme confirmed the TCDD-dependent formation of the AHR/ARNT complex on DRE leading to an increase of the CYP1A1 transcription in Hepa cells. In contrast, in HeLa cells formation of the AHR/ARNT heterodimer and binding of a protein complex containing AHR and ARNT to DRE occurred naturally in the absence of TCDD. Moreover, treatment with TCDD did not affect the AHR/ARNT dimer formation and binding of these proteins to DRE in these cells. Even though the constitutive complex on DRE exists in HeLa, transcription of the CYP1A1 gene was not increased. Furthermore, the CYP1A1 level in HeLa cells remained unchanged in the presence of TCDD suggesting repressional mechanism of the AHR complex function which may hinder the TCDD-dependent mechanisms in these cells. Similar to the native, the mouse CYP1A1-driven reporter constructs containing different regulatory elements were not inducible by TCDD in HeLa cells, which supported a presence of cell type specific trans-acting factor in HeLa cells able to repress both the native CYP1A1 and CYP1A1-driven reporter genes rather than species specific differences between CYP1A1 genes of human and rodent origin. The different regulation of the AHR-mediated transcription of CYP1A1 gene in Hepa and HeLa cells was further explored in order to elucidate two aspects of the AHR function: (I) mechanism involved in the activation of AHR in the absence of exogenous ligand and (II) factor that repress function of the exogenous ligand-independent AHR/ARNT complex. Since preliminary studies revealed that the activation of PKA causes an activation of AHR in Hepa cells in the absence of TCDD, the PKA-dependent signalling pathway was the proposed endogenous mechanism leading to the TCDD-independent activation of AHR in HeLa cells. Activation of PKA by forskolin or db-cAMP as well as inhibition of the kinase by H89 in both HeLa and Hepa cells did not lead to alterations in the AHR interaction with ARNT in the absence of TCDD and had no effect on binding of these proteins to DRE. Moreover, the modulators of PKA did not influence the CYP1A1 activity in these cells in the presence and in the absence of TCDD. Thus, an involvement of PKA in the regulation of the CYP1A1 Gen in HeLa cells was not evaluated in the course of this study. Repression of genes by transcription factors bound to their responsive elements in the absence of ligands has been described for nuclear receptors. These receptors interact with protein complex containing histone deacetylase (HDAC), enzyme responsible for the repressional effect. Thus, a participation of histone deacetylase in the transcriptional modulation of CYP1A1 gene by the constitutively DNA-bound AHR/ARNT complex was supposed. Inhibition of the HDAC activity by trichostatin A (TSA) or sodium butyrate (NaBu) led to an increase of the CYP1A1 transcription in the presence but not in the absence of TCDD in Hepa and HeLa cells. Since amount of the AHR and ARNT proteins remained unchanged upon treatment of the cells with TSA or NaBu, the transcriptional upregulation of CYP1A1 gene was not due to an increased expression of the regulatory proteins. These findings strongly suggest an involvement of HDAC in the repression of the CYP1A1 gene. Similar to the native human CYP1A1 also the mouse CYP1A1-driven reporter gene transfected into HeLa cells was repressed by histone deacetylase since the presence of TSA or NaBu led to an increase in the reporter activity. Induction of reporter gene did not require a presence of the promoter or negative regulatory regions of the CYP1A1 gene. A promoter-distal fragment containing three DREs together with surrounding sequences was sufficient to mediate the effects of the HDAC inhibitors suggesting that the AHR/ARNT binding to its specific DNA recognition site may be important for the CYP1A1 repression. Histone deacetylase is recruited to the specific genes by corepressors, proteins that bind to the transcription factors and interact with other members of the HDAC complex. Western blot analyses revealed a presence of HDAC1 and the corepressors mSin3A (mammalian homolog of yeast Sin3) and SMRT (silencing mediator for retinoid and thyroid hormone receptor) in both cell types, while the corepressor NCoR (nuclear receptor corepressor) was expressed exclusively in HeLa cells. Thus the high inducibility of CYP1A1 in Hepa cells may be due to the absence of NCoR in these cells in contrast to the non-responsive HeLa cells, where the presence of NCoR would support repression of the gene by histone deacetylase. This hypothesis was verified in reporter gene experiments where expression constructs coding for the particular members of the HDAC complex were cotransfected in Hepa cells together with the TCDD-inducible reporter constructs containing the CYP1A1 regulatory sequences. An overexpression of NCoR however did not decrease but instead led to a slight increase of the reporter gene activity in the cells. The expected inhibition was observed solely in the case of SMRT that slightly reduced constitutive and TCDD-induced reporter gene activity. A simultaneous expression of NCoR and SMRT shown no further effects and coexpression of HDAC1 with the two corepressors did not alter this situation. Thus, additional factors that are likely involved in the repression of CYP1A1 gene by HDAC complex remained to be identified. Taking together, characterisation of an exogenous ligand independent AHR/ARNT complex on DRE in HeLa cells that repress transcription of the CYP1A1 gene creates a model system enabling investigation of endogenous processes involved in the regulation of AHR function. This study implicates HDAC-mediated repression of CYP1A1 gene that contributes to the xenobiotic-induced expression in a tissue specific manner. Elucidation of these processes gains an insight into mechanisms leading to deleterious effects of TCDD and related compounds.

Ursachen der unterschiedlichen Oligomerisierung von Lichtsammelproteinen

Die verschiedenen Lichtsammelproteine (Lhc-Proteine) höherer Pflanzen unterscheiden sich im Oligomerisierungsverhalten. Im Photosystem II existieren 6 Lhc-Proteine, die entweder die monomeren Lichtsammelkomplexe (LHC) CP24 (Lhcb6), CP26 (Lhcb5) und CP29 (Lhcb4) oder den trimeren LHCII (Lhcb1, Lhcb2 und Lhcb3) bilden. Im Photosystem I sind laut Kristallstruktur vier Lhc-Proteine lokalisiert, die als Heterodimere organisiert vorliegen. Der schwerpunktmäßig untersuchte LHCI-730 setzt sich aus Lhca1 und Lhca4 zusammen, während der LHCI-680 aus Lhca2 und Lhca3 besteht. Das Ziel der Arbeit bestand in der Identifizierung der für das unterschiedliche Oligomerisierungsverhalten verantwortlichen Proteinbereiche und Aminosäuren. Die für diese Arbeit generierten Consensussequenzalignments verschiedener Lhca- und Lhcb-Proteine vieler Arten unterstützen die Folgerungen aus Strukturdaten und anderen Sequenzalignments, dass den LHCs eine gemeinsame Monomerstruktur zu Grunde liegt. Die Helices 1 und 3 weisen weitgehend sehr hohe Sequenzidentitäten auf, während die N- und C-Termini, die zwei Schleifenregionen und die Helix 2 nur schwach konserviert sind. Falls die Bereiche mit hoher Sequenzübereinstimmung für das Zustandekommen ähnlicher monomerer LHC-Strukturen verantwortlich sind, könnten in den schwach konservierten Domänen die Ursachen für das unterschiedliche Oligomerisierungsverhalten lokalisiert sein. Aufgrund dessen wurden die schwach konservierten Domänen des monomerisierenden Lhcb4, des mit dem Lhca1 dimerisierenden Lhca4 und des Trimere bildenden Lhcb1 gegen die entsprechenden Domänen der anderen Proteine ausgetauscht und bezüglich ihres Oligomerisierungsverhaltens untersucht. Im Lhca4 konnten mit der Helix 2 und der stromalen Schleife zwei für eine Heterodimerisierung essentielle Domänen gefunden werden. Im Lhcb1 waren neben dem N-Terminus auch die 2. Helix und die stromale Schleifendomäne unentbehrlich für eine Trimerisierung. Zusätzlich waren Dimerisierung und Trimerisierung bei Austausch der luminalen Schleife beeinträchtigt. Ein geringer Beitrag zur Lhcb1-Trimerisierung konnte auch für den C-Terminus belegt werden. Ein zusätzliches Ziel der Arbeit sollte der Transfer der Oligomerisierungseigenschaften durch umfangreichen Domänentausch von einem auf ein anderes Protein sein. Der Transfer der Fähigkeit zur Dimerbildung durch Substitution gegen essentielle Lhca4-Domänen (50% luminale Schleife, 100% Helix 2 und 100% stromale Schleife) gelang beim Lhcb4, nicht aber beim Lhcb1. Der Transfer der Trimerisierungsfähigkeit auf Lhca4 und Lhcb4 scheiterte. Eine Lhca1-Mutante mit allen für eine Dimerisierung essentiellen Lhca4-Domänen, die durch Interaktion einzelner Moleküle untereinander multimere LHCs bilden sollte, war bereits in ihrer Monomerbildung beeinträchtigt. Eine Übertragung der Oligomerisierungsfähigkeit auf andere Proteine durch massiven Domänentransfer gestaltete sich somit schwierig, da vermutlich im mutierten Protein immer noch ursprüngliche Tertiärstrukturanteile enthalten waren, die nicht mit den transferierten Proteinbestandteilen kompatibel sind. Bei zukünftigen Experimenten zur Klärung der Transferierbarkeit der Oligomerisierungseigenschaft sollten deswegen neben dem unberücksichtigten 1. Teil der luminalen Schleife auch wenig konservierte Aminosäuren in der 1. und 3. Helix Beachtung finden. Ein weiteres Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die LHCI-730-Dimerisierung im Detail zu untersuchen. Mutationsanalysen bestätigten den von früheren Untersuchungen bekannten Einfluss des Isoleucins 103 und Histidins 99. Letzteres geht möglicherweise durch sein gebundenes Chlorophyll eine Interaktion mit dem Lhca1 ein. Das Phenylalanin 95 stellte sich ebenfalls als ein wichtiger Interaktionspartner heraus und könnte in Wechselwirkung mit einem zwischen Lhca1 und Lhca4 lokalisierten Phosphatidylglycerin treten. Das ebenfalls an der Dimerbildung beteiligte Serin 88 des Lhca4 könnte auf Grund der räumlichen Nähe bei Modellierungen direkt mit dem am C-Terminus des Lhca1 lokalisierten Glycin 190 interagieren. Darüber hinaus wurde ein in der luminalen Lhca4-Schleife lokalisiertes Phenylalanin 84 als Interaktionspartner des Tryptophans 185 im C-Terminus von Lhca1 identifiziert. Der simultane Austausch des Isoleucins 109 und Lysins 110 in der stromalen Schleife des Lhca4, konnte deren Einfluss auf die Dimerisierung belegen. Nachdem bislang an der Dimerbildung beteiligte Aminosäuren am N- und C-Terminus des Lhca1 und Lhca4 identifiziert werden konnten, wurden in dieser Arbeit viele an einer Dimerbildung beteiligten Proteinbereiche und Aminosäuren in der Helix 2 und den Schleifenregionen des Lhca4 identifiziert. Um alle an der Lhca1-Lhca4-Interaktion beteiligten Aminosäuren aufzuklären, müssten durch Mutationsanalysen die in der stromalen Lhca4-Schleife vermuteten Interaktionspartner des für die Dimerisierung wichtigen Tryptophans 4 am N-Terminus von Lhca1 identifiziert, und die in der Helix 3 des Lhca1 vermuteten Interaktionspartner der Helix 2 des Lhca4 ermittelt werden.

Faltung, Assemblierung und Stabilisierung des Transmembranproteins Cytochrom b 6

In dieser Arbeit wurde der Beitrag der interhelikalen Loops zur Faltung, Assemblierung und Stabilität des kofaktortragenden Transmembranproteins Cytochrom b6 in vitro untersucht. Cytochrom b6 ist aus vier Transmembranhelices aufgebaut, die über drei Loops miteinander verbunden sind. Die beiden nicht-kovalent gebundenen Kofaktoren werden spontan in der Häm-Bindespalte zwischen den zwei Cytochrom b6-Hälften gebunden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Verlängerung oder Eliminierung des Loops, der die beiden Hälften verbindet, nicht die Faltung und Assemblierung des Proteins beeinflusst. Der Loop ist für eine räumliche Positionierung und Orientierung der Hälften während der Assemblierung nicht essentiell. Weiterhin scheint keiner der drei interhelikalen Loops für die Bindung der Kofaktoren notwendig zu sein. Die Cytochrom b6-Hälfte, bestehend aus den Helices A und B, besitzt eine Konformation, die stabil genug ist um Häm alleine zu binden. Ebenso zeigt Helix B alleine eine α-helikale Struktur und bindet ebenfalls Häm. In vivo wurden bislang keine Faktoren beschrieben, die an der Assemblierung beteiligt sind. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden strukturelle Merkmale des Häms identifiziert, welche die Spezifität der Häm-Bindung, wenigstens in vitro, ausmachen. Von großer Bedeutung ist dabei das zentrale Eisen-Ion, dessen Eliminierung oder Austausch die Häm-Bindung verhindert. Die Substituenten des Porphyrinrings scheinen hingegen für die Stabilität der Bindung notwendig zu sein.

Regulatory mechanism of the light-activable allosteric switch LOV-TAP for the control of DNA binding: a computer simulation study

The spatio-temporal control of gene expression is fundamental to elucidate cell proliferation and deregulation phenomena in living systems. Novel approaches based on light-sensitive multiprotein complexes have recently been devised, showing promising perspectives for the noninvasive and reversible modulation of the DNA-transcriptional activity in vivo. This has lately been demonstrated in a striking way through the generation of the artificial protein construct light-oxygen-voltage (LOV)-tryptophan-activated protein (TAP), in which the LOV-2-Jα photoswitch of phototropin1 from Avena sativa (AsLOV2-Jα) has been ligated to the tryptophan-repressor (TrpR) protein from Escherichia coli. Although tremendous progress has been achieved on the generation of such protein constructs, a detailed understanding of their functioning as opto-genetical tools is still in its infancy. Here, we elucidate the early stages of the light-induced regulatory mechanism of LOV-TAP at the molecular level, using the noninvasive molecular dynamics simulation technique. More specifically, we find that Cys450-FMN-adduct formation in the AsLOV2-Jα-binding pocket after photoexcitation induces the cleavage of the peripheral Jα-helix from the LOV core, causing a change of its polarity and electrostatic attraction of the photoswitch onto the DNA surface. This goes along with the flexibilization through unfolding of a hairpin-like helix-loop-helix region interlinking the AsLOV2-Jα- and TrpR-domains, ultimately enabling the condensation of LOV-TAP onto the DNA surface. By contrast, in the dark state the AsLOV2-Jα photoswitch remains inactive and exerts a repulsive electrostatic force on the DNA surface. This leads to a distortion of the hairpin region, which finally relieves its tension by causing the disruption of LOV-TAP from the DNA.

A bHLH Complex Controls Embryonic Vascular Tissue Establishment and Indeterminate Growth in Arabidopsis

Plants have a remarkable potential for sustained (indeterminate) postembryonic growth. Following their specification in the early embryo, tissue-specific precursor cells first establish tissues and later maintain them postembryonically. The mechanisms underlying these processes are largely unknown. Here we define local control of oriented, periclinal cell division as the mechanism underlying both the establishment and maintenance of vascular tissue. We identify an auxin-regulated basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor dimer as a critical regulator of vascular development. Due to a loss of periclinal divisions, vascular tissue gradually disappears in bHLH-deficient mutants; conversely, ectopic expression is sufficient for triggering periclinal divisions. We show that this dimer operates independently of tissue identity but is restricted to a small vascular domain by integrating overlapping transcription patterns of the interacting bHLH proteins. Our work reveals a common mechanism for tissue establishment and indeterminate vascular development and provides a conceptual framework for developmental control of local cell divisions.

ELUCIDATING FUNCTIONAL ROLES FOR MYOGENIN IN ADULT SKELETAL MUSCLE METABOLISM, EXERCISE CAPACITY, AND REGENERATION

The four basic helix-loop-helix myogenic transcription factors, myogenin, Myf5, MRF4, and MyoD are critical for embryonic skeletal muscle development. Myogenin is necessary for the terminal differentiation of myoblasts into myofibers during embryogenesis, but little is known about the roles played by myogenin in adult skeletal muscle function and metabolism. Furthermore, while metabolism is a well-studied physiological process, how it is regulated at the transcriptional level remains poorly understood. In this study, my aim was to determine the function of myogenin in adult skeletal muscle metabolism, exercise capacity, and regeneration. To investigate this, I utilized a mouse strain harboring the Myogflox allele and a Cre recombinase transgene, enabling the efficient deletion of myogenin in the adult mouse. Myogflox/flox mice were stressed physically through involuntary treadmill running and by breeding them with a strain harboring the Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy (DMDmdx) allele. Surprisingly, Myog-deleted animals exhibited an enhanced capacity for exercise, running farther and faster than their wild-type counterparts. Increased lactate production and utilization of glucose as a fuel source indicated that Myog-deleted animals exhibited an increased glycolytic flux. Hypoglycemic Myog-deleted mice no longer possessed the ability to outrun their wild-type counterparts, implying the ability of these animals to further deplete their glucose reserves confers their enhanced exercise capacity. Moreover, Myog-deleted mice exhibited an enhanced response to long-term exercise training. The mice developed a greater proportion of type 1 oxidative muscle fibers, and displayed increased levels of succinate dehydrogenase activity, indicative of increased oxidative metabolism. Mdx:Myog-deleted mice exhibited a similar phenotype, outperforming their mdx counterparts, although lagging behind wild-type animals. The morphology of muscle tissue from mdx:Myog-deleted mice appears to mimic that of mdx animals, indicating that myogenin is dispensable for adult skeletal muscle regeneration. Through global gene expression profiling and quantitative (q)RT-PCR, I identified a unique set of putative myogenin-dependent genes involved in regulating metabolic processes. These data suggest myogenin’s functions during adulthood are distinctly different than those during embryogenesis, and myogenin acts as a high-level transcription factor regulating metabolic activity in adult skeletal muscle.

Insights into transcription enhancer factor 1 (TEF-1) activity from the solution structure of the TEA domain.

Transcription enhancer factor 1 is essential for cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle development and uses its N-terminal TEA domain (TEAD) to bind M-CAT elements. Here, we present the first structure of TEAD and show that it is a three-helix bundle with a homeodomain fold. Structural data reveal how TEAD binds DNA. Using structure-function correlations, we find that the L1 loop is essential for cooperative loading of TEAD molecules on to tandemly duplicated M-CAT sites. Furthermore, using a microarray chip-based assay, we establish that known binding sites of the full-length protein are only a subset of DNA elements recognized by TEAD. Our results provide a model for understanding the regulation of genome-wide gene expression during development by TEA/ATTS family of transcription factors.

Crystal structure of the Anabaena sensory rhodopsin transducer.

We present crystal structures of the Anabaena sensory rhodopsin transducer (ASRT), a soluble cytoplasmic protein that interacts with the first structurally characterized eubacterial retinylidene photoreceptor Anabaena sensory rhodopsin (ASR). Four crystal structures of ASRT from three different spacegroups were obtained, in all of which ASRT is present as a planar (C4) tetramer, consistent with our characterization of ASRT as a tetramer in solution. The ASRT tetramer is tightly packed, with large interfaces where the well-structured beta-sandwich portion of the monomers provides the bulk of the tetramer-forming interactions, and forms a flat, stable surface on one side of the tetramer (the beta-face). Only one of our four different ASRT crystals reveals a C-terminal alpha-helix in the otherwise all-beta protein, together with a large loop from each monomer on the opposite face of the tetramer (the alpha-face), which is flexible and largely disordered in the other three crystal forms. Gel-filtration chromatography demonstrated that ASRT forms stable tetramers in solution and isothermal microcalorimetry showed that the ASRT tetramer binds to ASR with a stoichiometry of one ASRT tetramer per one ASR photoreceptor with a K(d) of 8 microM in the highest affinity measurements. Possible mechanisms for the interaction of this transducer tetramer with the ASR photoreceptor via its flexible alpha-face to mediate transduction of the light signal are discussed.

Studies on the muscle-specific regulatory protein myogenin

Recently, a family of muscle-specific regulatory factors that includes myogenin, myoD, myf-5, and MRF-4 has been identified. They share a high degree of homology within a region that contains a basic and helix-loop-helix domain. Transfection of many non-muscle cell types with any one of these genes results in the activation of the entire myogenic program. To explore the mechanism through which myogenin regulates myogenesis, we have prepared antibodies against peptides specific to myogenin. Using these antibodies we show that myogenin is a 32 Kd phospho-protein which is localized to the nuclei of muscle cells. In vitro, myogenin oligomerizes with the ubiquitous enhancer binding factor E12, and acquires high affinity for an element of the core of the muscle creatine kinase (MCK) enhancer that is conserved among many muscle-specific genes. Myogenin synthesized in BC$\sb3$H1 and C2 muscle cell lines also binds to the same site in the enhancer. However, the MCK enhancer is not activated in 10T1/2 fibroblasts which have been transfected with a constitutive myogenin expression vector until growth factors have been removed from the media. This result indicates that mitogenic signals block the actions of myogenin.. Mutagenesis of the myogenin/E12 binding site in the MCK enhancer abolishes binding of the hetero-oligomer and prevents trans-activation of the enhancer by myogenin. By site directed mutagenesis of myogenin we have shown that the basic region consists of three clusters of basic residues, two of which are required for binding and activation of the myogenic program. Myogenic activation, but not DNA binding, is lost when the 10 residue region between the two required basic clusters is substituted with the corresponding region from E12, which also contains a similar basic and helix-loop-helix domain. Functional revertants of this substitution mutant have identified two amino acids which confer muscle specificity. The properties of myogenin suggest that it functions as a sequence-specific DNA binding factor that interacts directly with muscle-specific genes during myogenesis and contains within its basic domain a region which imparts myogenic activation and is separable from DNA binding. ^