Etablierung von Expressionsystemen für Gene der Indolalkaloid-Biosynthese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Cytochrom P450-Enzymen

Etablierung von Expressionsystemen für Gene der Indolalkaloid-Biosynthese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Cytochrom P450-Enzymen In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Enzyme aus der Arzneipflanze Rauvolfia serpentina bearbeitet. Es wurde versucht, das an der Biosynthese des Alkaloids Ajmalin beteiligte Cytochrom P450-Enzym Vinorin-Hydroxylase heterolog und funktionell zu exprimieren. Ein zunächst unvollständiger, unbekannter Cytochrom P450-Klon konnte komplettiert und eindeutig mittels heterologer Expression in sf9-Insektenzellen als Cinnamoyl-Hydroxylase identifiziert werden. Die Tauglichkeit des Insektenzellsystems für die Untersuchung der Vinorin-Hydroxylase ist auf Grund der deacetylierenden Wirkung der Insektenzellen auf das Substrat Vinorin nicht gegeben. Im Rahmen des Homology Cloning Projektes konnten mehrere Volllängenklone und diverse Teilsequenzen von neuen Cytochrom P450-Klonen ermittelt werden. Ausserdem wurde durch das unspezifische Binden eines degenerierten Primers ein zusätzlicher Klon gefunden, der der Gruppe der löslichen Reduktasen zugeordnet werden konnte. Diese putative Reduktase wurde auf die Aktivität von mehreren Schlüsselenzymen der Ajmalin-Biosynthese durch heterologe Expression in E.coli und anschliessende HPLC-gestützte Aktivitätstests ohne Erfolg geprüft. Bedingt durch die Untauglichkeit des Insektenzellsystems für die Identifizierung der Vinorin-Hydroxylase, wurde ein neuartiges Modul-gestütztes, pflanzliches Expressionsystem etabliert, um vorhandene P450-Volllängenklone auf Vinorin- Hydroxylaseaktivität testen zu können. Die Funktionalität des Systems konnte durch die heterologe Expression der Polyneuridinaldehyd Esterase bestätigt werden. Trotzdem war es bis jetzt nicht möglich, die Cinnamoyl-Hydroxylase als Kontrollenzym für das pflanzliche System oder aber die gesuchte Vinorin- Hydroxylase in aktiver Form zu exprimieren.

Überexpression und Charakterisierung des extrazellulären Teils der humanen alpha-Sekretase ADAM10

„ÜBEREXPRESSION UND CHARAKTERISIERUNG DES EXTRAZELLULÄREN TEILS DER HUMANEN alpha-SEKRETASE ADAM10“ ALEXANDRA LEPTICH Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden zwei enzymatisch aktive lösliche Proteinvarianten der humanen alpha-Sekretase ADAM10 in Insektenzellen exprimiert, gereinigt und charakterisiert. Dabei entsprach eine der löslichen ADAM10-Varianten dem extrazellulären Bereich des Typ-I-Membranproteins, d.h. ihr fehlte die Transmembran- und cytoplasmatische Domäne. Die zweite Variante stimmt mit einer im menschlichen Gehirn auf mRNA-Ebene nachgewiesenen Splicevariante überein, die zusätzlich noch durch das Fehlen der Cystein-reichen Domäne gekennzeichnet ist. Die alpha-Sekretase ADAM10 spielt eine wichtige Rolle bei der nicht-amyloidogenen Prozessierung des Amyloid-Vorläufer-Proteins (APP). Dabei erfolgt dessen Spaltung innerhalb der beta-Amyloidsequenz, so dass die Produktion von Abeta-Peptiden und damit die Bildung von Amyloid-Plaques während der Alzheimer’schen Erkrankung verhindert wird. Nach der Expression der beiden löslichen ADAM10-Proteine in Insektenzellen erfolgte die Reinigung der prozessierten und damit reifen Enzymform der jeweiligen ADAM10-Proteinvariante mittels Lektin-Affinitätschromatographie. Die anschließende Charakterisierung der beiden löslichen ADAM10-Proteine erfolgte durch einen auf HPLC-Analyse basierenden Enzymtest. Dabei wurden verschiedene sich von der beta-Amyloid-Sequenz ableitenden Peptidsubstrate in vitro eingesetzt, die zum einen den Aminosäuren 11-28 der Abeta-Sequenz, zum anderen dem kompletten Abeta40-Peptid entsprachen und damit die charakteristische alpha-Sekretasespaltstelle des Amyloid-Vorläufer-Proteins enthielten. Des Weiteren kamen jeweils entsprechende Peptidsubstrate zum Einsatz, die an den Positionen 21 und 22 der Abeta- Peptidsequenz vorkommenden Mutationen trugen. Die gewählten Abeta-Substrate konnten durch die löslichen Varianten der alpha-Sekretase ADAM10 an der alpha-Sekretasestelle gespalten werden. Dabei konnte bei den Abeta11-28-Peptiden deutlich die in der Literatur beschriebene Abhängigkeit der Spaltung von der a-helicalen Struktur des Substrats beobachtet werden, während bei den längeren Abeta40-Peptide diesbezüglich kein Zusammenhang hergestellt werden konnte. Diese Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass ADAM10 hauptsächlich als alpha-Sekretase wirkt, weniger als ein Abeta-degradierendes Enzym. Ferner konnte unter Verwendung entsprechender muriner und humaner Abeta-Peptide eine verstärkte Spaltung der murinen Substrate Abeta1-28 und Abeta1-40 durch den extrazellulären Teil von ADAM10 in vitro gezeigt werden. Dieser Versuch bestätigt die Annahme, dass es bei Nagetieren durch die Bevorzugung der nichtamyloidogenen Prozessierung von APP durch die alpha-Sekretase ADAM10 zu keiner Bildung von Amyloid-Plaques kommt. Ein Einfluss auf die Spaltung von membrangebundenem APP und damit der Bildung von neuroprotektivem sAPPalpha durch die löslichen ADAM10-Proteine konnte im Zellsystem nicht beobachtet werden. Vielmehr scheint hier die Membranverankerung von Enzym und Substrat eine wichtige Voraussetzung zu bilden. Des Weiteren konnten die löslichen ADAM10-Proteine durch ein für die Inhibierung von ADAM10 spezifische Hydroxamat-Derivat in ihrer enzymatischen Aktivität gehemmt werden. Die exprimierten ADAM10-Proteine weisen die charakteristischen Eigenschaften der alpha-Sekretase ADAM10 auf, wobei deutlich wurde, dass das Fehlen der Cystein-reichen Domäne keinen Einfluss auf die Fähigkeit der katalytischen Domäne zur Substrat- und Inhibitorbindung hatte. Auch die Stabilität des Enzyms wurde durch das Fehlen der Domäne nicht negativ beeinträchtigt. Eine wichtige Aufgabe stellt nun der Nachweis der löslichen ADAM10-Proteine sowie die Identifizierung ihrer potentiellen Substrate und deren Lokalisation in vivo dar.

Epidemiologia e caratterizzazione molecolare di virus emergenti responsabili di Zoonosi: Calcivirus e Virus dell'Epatite E

Il virus dell’Epatite E (HEV) e i calicivirus (norovirus e sapovirus) causano rispettivamente epatite acuta e gastroenterite. Questi virus sono considerati agenti eziologici emergenti rappresentando un problema di sanità pubblica e di sicurezza alimentare. Per HEV, è ormai confermata la trasmissione zoonotica, e il suino è considerato il principale serbatoio asintomatico. Norovirus e sapovirus infettano sia i bambini che gli adulti. Sebbene questi virus siano stati identificati anche negli animali, la possibile trasmissione zoonotica non è stata dimostrata in modo conclusivo. Il lavoro sperimentale condotto durante il Dottorato di Ricerca è stato focalizzato sullo studio degli aspetti biologici ed epidemiologici dell’infezioni causate da HEV e da calicivirus. Per la prima volta in Italia, i risultati ottenuti hanno dimostrato la presenza del virus HEV nei fegati di suini in fase di macellazione ed hanno confermato, attraverso la ricerca di anticorpi, un’elevata esposizione degli animali al virus. Inoltre, mediante la produzione di antigeni e reattivi immunologici, sono stati messi a punto test diagnostici per la ricerca di anticorpi contro HEV nel suino e nei cinghiali. Il lavoro svolto per la ricerca di calicivirus nel suino e nel bovino ha dimostrato la circolazione dei sapovirus in popolazioni di suini asintomatici e la presenza di norovirus nei vitelli affetti da diarrea acuta.Sono stati inoltre sviluppati reattivi immunologici, utilizzando proteine del capside di norovirus umano e bovino espresse con il sistema ricombinante baculovirus. Questi hanno permesso di evidenziare la presenza di anticorpi contro norovirus umano e bovino, in sieri di veterinari professionalmente esposti. Inoltre, sono stati utilizzati per sviluppare metodi per la concentrazione dei virus da matrici a bassa concentrazione.Infine, le VLP sono state utilizzate per valutare l’attivazione del sistema immunitario umano ex vivo. I risultati hanno dimostrato che le VLP di NoV stimolano il sistema immunitario attivando risposte di tipo Th1 e Th2 .

Analysing the possible influence of transposon TCl4.7 insertion on the function of the genome of Cydia pomonella granulovirus

CpGV-MCp5 is a natural mutant of the Cydia pomonella Granulovirus (Mexican isolate) (CpGV-M) that harbors an insect host transposon termed TCl4.7 in its genome. TCl4.7 is located between the open reading frames Cp15 and Cp16 and separates two homologous regions hr3 and hr4, which have been recently shown to be origins of replication of CpGV-M. The MCp5 has a significant replication disadvantage in the presence of the wild-type CpGV-M. In this study, the possible effects of TCl4.7 transposon insertion on the genome function of its insertion site has been analysed. The role of Cp15 and Cp16 in the context of the virus infection cycle was examined by generating a CpGV-Bacmid (CpBAC) and Cp15 knock-out (CpBACCp15KO) and Cp16 knock-out (CpBACCp16KO) mutants. The mutant CpBACCp15KO was not able to replicate in CM larvae suggesting that Cp15 was essential for virus replication. In contrast, the mutant CpBACCp16KO infected CM larvae and produced viable occlusion bodies (OBs) demonstrating that Cp16 is a non-essential gene for virus in vivo infection of C. pomonella. The temporal transcription of Cp15 and Cp16, as well as of Cp31 (F protein) as a control, was analysed using RT-PCR and quantitative real-time PCR. It suggested a general delay or reduction of gene transcription of MCp5 compared to the parental CpGV-M. Western blot analyses using anti-Cp15 and anti-Cp16 polyclonal antibodies, however, did not show any immuno-reactive response. Thus, a direct influence of TCl4.7 on the expression of Cp15 and Cp16 could not be substantiated. To investigate whether the interruption of hr3 and hr4 palindromes affects the virus replication, two mutant bacmids with a deletion of hr3 and hr4 (CpBAChr3/hr4-KO) and another with an insertion of a Kanamycin resistance cassette between hr3 and hr4 (CpBAChr3-kan-hr4) were generated. Both mutant bacmids replicated and produced infectious virus OBs, which did not significantly differ in their median lethal concentration (LC50) and median survival time (ST50) compared to the parental CpBAC. Interestingly, the mutant CpBAChr3-kan-hr4 was very effectively out-competed by parental CpBAC, when CM larvae were co-infected with known ratios of OBs of CpBAC and the mutant CpBAChr3-kan-hr4. These observations suggested a functional co-operation between hr3 and hr4 which was interrupted by the KanR insertion in CpBAChr3-kan-hr4 and possibly by TCl4.7 transposon insertion in the mutant MCp5. This hypothesis may explain the observed replication disadvantage of the mutants MCp5 and CpBAChr3-kan-hr4 in the presence of the parental viruses CpGV-M and CpBAC, respectively.

Novel isolates of Cydia pomonella granulovirus (CpGV): deciphering the molecular mechanism for overcoming CpGV resistance in codling moth (Cydia pomonella)

During the last twenty years, Cydia pomonolla granulovirus (CpGV, Baculoviridae) has become the most important biological control agent for the codling moth (CM) in organic and integrated apple production. All registered products in Europe are based on the isolate CpGV-M, which was discovered 1964 in Mexico. A serious threat to future application of CpGV is the occurrence of CM field populations resistant to CpGV. Since 2003, populations with up to 10,000-fold reduced susceptibility were reported from orchards in Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria and the Netherlands. A putative alternative to CpGV-M are novel CpGV isolates which are able to overcome CM resistance. This thesis focuses on the identification and characterisation of resistance overcoming CpGV isolates and the analysis of their molecular difference to CpGV-M.rnSixteen CpGV isolates were tested against CM lab strains in bioassays. Hereby, five isolates were identified which were able to completely overcome resistance. The genomes of these isolates were compared to CpGV-M by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. To identify the molecular factor responsible for improved virulence of some CpGV isolates, major genomic differences were sequenced and analysed. A 0.7 kb insertion was found in CpGV-I01, -I12 and -E2, but not in other resistance overcoming isolates. Analysis of the insertions sequence revealed that it might be due to a transposition event, but not involved in overcoming resistance. rnFor unequivocal identification of CpGV isolates, a new method based on molecular analysis was established. Partial sequencing of the conserved polyhedrin/granulin (polh/gran), late expression factor-8 (lef-8) and late expression factor-9 (lef-9) genes revealed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). SNP analysis correlated with the grouping obtained by RFLP analysis. A phylogenetic classification due to different genome types A-E is proposed. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that CpGV-M was the phylogenetically youngest of the tested CpGV isolates.rnWhole genome sequencing of two resistance overcoming isolates CpGV-I12 (type D genome) and -S (type E genome) and CpGV-M (type A genome) was performed. Comparison of the three genomes revealed a high sequence identity. Several insertions and deletions ranging from 1-700 nucleotides (nt) were found. Comparison on open reading frame (ORF) level revealed that CpGV-I12 and -S shared only one protein alteration when compared to CpGV-M: a stretch of 24 nt present in ORF cp24 was not found in any of the resistance overcoming isolates. Cp24 codes for the early gene pe38. Combined with the results of phylogenetic analysis, it is proposed that these 24 nt are a recent insertion into the CpGV-M genome. The role of pe38 in overcoming resistance was investigated by knocking out pe38 of a CpGV-M based bacmid and swapping of CpGV-I12 pe38 of into the k.o. bacmid. When pe38 of CpGV-I12 was inserted into the k.o. bacmid, the infectivity could not be rescued, suggesting that the genomic portion of pe38 might play a role in its function.rnIt can be concluded that the recently observed CpGV resistance in CM is only related to type A genomes. RFLP and SNP analysis provide tools for identifying and characterising different CpGV isolates reliably, a pre-condition for a future registration of CpGV products based on novel CpGV isolates.rnrnrn

Diversity of baculoviruses isolated from cutworms (Agrotis spp.)

Larven der Eulenfalter, Gattung Agrotis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), sind Schädlinge in der Landwirtschaft, welche gravierende Fraßschäden an bodennahen Pflanzenteilen verursachen. Häufig kommt es zum Absterben der noch jungen Pflanzen oder zu Beschädigungen der pflanzlichen Produkte, was zu finanziellen Ertragsverlusten führt. Zwei der wichtigsten landwirtschaftlichen Schädlinge der Gattung Agrotis sind die Larven der Saateule (Agrotis segetum) und der Ypsiloneule (Agrotis ipsilon), welche bisher überwiegend mittels chemischer Pestizide bekämpft werden. Als eine umweltfreundliche, nachhaltige und vielversprechende Alternative in der Bekämpfung wird der Einsatz von Baculoviren berücksichtigt. Baculoviren zeichnen sich durch eine hohe Virulenz und einem sehr engen Wirtsbereich aus. Häufig werden nur wenige nah verwandte Arten der gleichen Gattung infiziert. Aus der Gattung Agrotis wurden bisher mindestens vier Baculoviren isoliert und charakterisiert, welche als potentielle biologische Pflanzenschutzmittel in Frage kommen; sie gehören zu zwei Gattungen der Baculoviren: rnAlphabaculovirusrn(i) Agrotis segetum nucleopolyhedrovirus A (AgseNPV-A)rn(ii) Agrotis segetum nucleopolyhedrovirus B (AgseNPV-B)rn(iii) Agrotis ipsilon nucleopolyhedrovirus (AgipNPV)rnBetabaculovirusrn(i) Agrotis segetum granulovirus (AgseGV).rnDie Genome der AgseNPV-A, AgipNPV sowie des AgseGV wurden in vorherigen Studien bereits vollständig sequenziert und publiziert. In der vorgelegten Dissertation wurde das AgseNPV-B sequenziert und umfassend mit AgseNPV-A und AgipNPV verglichen. Das Genom von AgseNPV-B ist 148981 Kbp groß und kodiert ….. offene Leseraster. Phylogenetische Analysen zeigen eine enge Verwandtschaft dieser drei Viren und klassifizieren AgseNPV-B als eine neue Art innerhalb der Gattung Alphabaculovirus. Auf Basis der vorhandenen Genomsequenzen konnte eine PCR-basierende Methode zur Detektion und Quantifizierung on AgseNPV-A, AgseNPV-B, AgipNPV und AgseGV etabliert werden. Dises Verfahren ermöglichte die Quantifizierung von AgseNPV-B und AgseGV in Larven von A. segetum, die von beiden Viren zeitgleichinfiziert waren. Durch das gemeinsame Auftreten dieser beiden Wiren innerhalb eines Wirtsindividuums stellte sich die Frage, welche Art der Interaktion bei einer Ko-Infektion vorliegt. Durch Mischinfektionsversuche von AgseNPV-B und AgseGV konnte gezeigt werden, dass beide Viren um die Ressourcen der Larven konkurrieren. Eine für landwirtschaftliche Zwecke vorteilige Interaktion, wie das vorzeitige Verenden der Larven, das bereits für andere interagierende Baculoviren nachgewiesen wurde, konnte ausgeschlossen werden. Neben den Mischinfektionsversuchen wurden auch AgseGV und AgseNPV-B einzeln auf ihre Eignung als biologisches Pflanzenschutzmittel getestet. AgseGV zeigte in den Laborversuchen eine relativ langsame Wirkung, während AgseNPV-B durchaus Potential für ein rasche Abtötung besitzt. rnDie durchgeführten Aktivitätsstudien und die Charakterisierung von AgseNPV-B als neue Art erlauben ein vertieftes biologisches und molekulares Verständnis des Virus legen den Grundstein für und eine mögliche spätere Zulassung als Pflanzenschutzmittel. Die Methode zur Identifizierung und Quantifizierung der Agrotis-Baculoviren stellt ein wichtiges Instrument in der Qualitätskontrolle für Produzenten dar und ermöglicht zudem weitere Untersuchungen von Agrotis-Baculoviren in Mischinfektionen.

Enantioselective capillary electrophoresis for the assessment of CYP3A4-mediated ketamine demethylation and inhibition in vitro

Enantioselective CE with sulfated cyclodextrins as chiral selectors was used to determine the CYP3A4-catalyzed N-demethylation kinetics of ketamine to norketamine and its inhibition in the presence of ketoconazole in vitro. Ketamine, a chiral phencyclidine derivative, was incubated with recombinant human CYP3A4 from a baculovirus expression system as racemic mixture and as single enantiomer. Alkaline liquid/liquid extracts of the samples were analyzed with a pH 2.5 buffer comprising 50 mM Tris and phosphoric acid together with either multiple isomer sulfated β-cyclodextrin (10 mg/mL) or highly sulfated γ-cyclodextrin (2%, w/v). Data obtained in the absence of ketoconazole revealed that the N-demethylation occurred stereoselectively with Michaelis-Menten (incubation of racemic ketamine) and Hill (separate incubation of single enantiomers) kinetics. Data generated in the presence of ketoconazole as the inhibitor could best be fitted to a one-site competitive model and inhibition constants were calculated using the equation of Cheng and Prusoff. No stereoselective difference was observed, but inhibition constants for the incubation of racemic ketamine were found to be larger compared with those obtained with the incubation of single ketamine enantiomers.

Cytochrome P450 inhibitory action of Echinacea preparations differs widely and co-varies with alkylamide content

Echinacea preparations are one of the best selling herbal medicinal products with a well established therapeutic use in the prophylaxis of upper respiratory tract infections. Their consumption is increasing, but information about their ability to inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) is fragmentary. The picture is further complicated by a lack of phytochemical characterization of previously tested preparations. Due to its well characterized immunomodulatory activity, the standardized Swiss registered Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench Echinaforce extract was selected for detailed study. With the single baculovirus-expressed CYP isoforms 1A2, 2C19, 2D9 and 3A4, inhibitory actions were measured by monitoring fluorescent metabolites derived from enzyme substrates (supersome assay). The Echinaforce extract induced mild inhibition of all these isoforms, with CYP 3A4 being the most, and CYP 2D6 the least sensitive enzyme. To assess whether CYP inhibition might be a general feature of Echinacea preparations, an additional nine commercially available preparations were screened using CYP 3A4. All tested preparations were able to inhibit CYP 3A4, but inhibitory potencies (expressed as median inhibitory concentration, IC50) varied by a factor of 150. The alkylamides are thought to be responsible for the immunomodulatory activity of Echinacea, and so the concentration of 2E,4E,8Z,10E/Z-tetranoic acid isobutylamide (1) and total alkylamide content were determined in all preparations, and the latter was found to be associated with their CYP 3A4 inhibitory potency. The chemically pure alkylamides dodeca-2E,4E,8Z,10E/Z-tetranoic acid isobutylamide (1) and dodeca-2E,4E-dieonoic acid isobutylamide (2) showed inhibitory activity on CYP 2C19, 2D6 and 3A4. However, unlike the Echinaforce extract, the alkylamides did not induce CYP 1A2 inhibition. Thus, other, as yet unidentified constituents also contribute to the overall weak inhibitory effects seen with Echinacea preparations in-vitro.

Cytochrome P450 2D18 in the mammalian brain: Recombinant expression, purification, and characterization of xenobiotic and endobiotic metabolism

The cytochromes P450 (P450) comprise a superfamily of hemoproteins that function in concert with NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (P450-reductase) to metabolize both endogenous and exogenous compounds. Many pharmacological agents undergo phase I metabolism by this P450 and P450-reductase monooxygenase system. Phase I metabolism ensures that these highly hydrophobic xenobiotics are made more hydrophilic, and hence easier to extrude from the body. While the majority of phase I metabolism occurs in the liver, metabolism in extrahepatic organ-systems like the intestine, kidney, and brain can have important roles in drug metabolism and/or efficacy. ^ While P450-mediated phase I metabolism has been well studied, investigators have only recently begun to elucidate what physiological roles P450 may have. One way to approach this question is to study P450s that are highly or specifically expressed in extrahepatic tissues. In this project I have studied the role of a recently cloned P450 family member, P450 2D18, that was previously shown to be expressed in the rat brain and kidney, but not in the liver. To this end, I have used the baculovirus expression system to over-express recombinant P450 2D18 and purified the functional enzyme using nickel and hydroxylapatite chromatography. SDS-PAGE analysis indicated that the enzyme was purified to electrophoretic homogeneity and Western analysis showed cross-reactivity with rabbit anti-human P450 2D6. Carbon monoxide difference spectra indicated that the purified protein contained no denatured P450 enzyme; this allowed for further characterization of the substrates and metabolites formed by P450 2D18-mediated metabolism. ^ Because P450 2D18 is expressed in brain, we characterized the activity toward several psychoactive drugs including the antidepressants imipramine and desipramine, and the anti-psychotic drugs chlorpromazine and haloperidol. P450 2D18 preferentially catalyzed the N-demethylation of imipramine, desipramine, and chlorpromazine. This is interesting given the fact that other P450 isoforms form multiple metabolites from such compounds. This limited metabolic profile might suggest that P450 2D18 has some unique function, or perhaps a role in endobiotic metabolism. ^ Further analysis of possible endogenous substrates for P450 2D18 led to the identification of dopamine and arachidonic acid as substrates. It was shown that P450 2D18 catalyzes the oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome, and that the enzyme binds dopamine with an apparent KS value of 678 μM, a value well within reported dopamine concentration in brain dopaminergic systems. Further, it was shown that P450 2D18 binds arachidonic acid with an apparent KS value of 148 μM, and catalyzes both the ω-hydroxylation and epoxygenation of arachidonic acid to metabolites that have been shown to have vasoactive properties in brain, kidney, and heart tissues. These data provide clues for endogenous roles of P450 within the brain, and possible involvement in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. ^

The Apis mellifera filamentous virus genome

A complete reference genome of the Apis mellifera Filamentous virus (AmFV) was determined using Illumina Hiseq sequencing. The AmFV genome is a double stranded DNA molecule of approximately 498,500 nucleotides with a GC content of 50.8%. It encompasses 247 non-overlapping open reading frames (ORFs), equally distributed on both strands, which cover 65% of the genome. While most of the ORFs lacked threshold sequence alignments to reference protein databases, twenty-eight were found to display significant homologies with proteins present in other large double stranded DNA viruses. Remarkably, 13 ORFs had strong similarity with typical baculovirus domains such as PIFs (per os infectivity factor genes: pif-1, pif-2, pif-3 and p74) and BRO (Baculovirus Repeated Open Reading Frame). The putative AmFV DNA polymerase is of type B, but is only distantly related to those of the baculoviruses. The ORFs encoding proteins involved in nucleotide metabolism had the highest percent identity to viral proteins in GenBank. Other notable features include the presence of several collagen-like, chitin-binding, kinesin and pacifastin domains. Due to the large size of the AmFV genome and the inconsistent affiliation with other large double stranded DNA virus families infecting invertebrates, AmFV may belong to a new virus family.

Production and characterisation of monoclonal antibodies specific for bovine interleukin-4

Genetic immunisation is a simple method for producing polyclonal antibodies in mice. By this method, we produced antibodies against bovine interleukin-4 (BoIL-4). After a final injection with a recombinant BoIL-4 protein, nine stable hybridoma cell lines were established which secreted monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against this cytokine. Specific binding of each of the MAbs to recombinant BoIL-4 produced by Escherichia coli, baculovirus, and Trypanosoma brucei was demonstrated in an indirect ELISA and/or in Western blotting. These MAbs recognise the same antigenic region localised in the first 47 amino acids of the mature protein. None of them was able to neutralise the biological activity of the BoIL-4 under the conditions tested but one allowed the detection of BoIL-4 by flow cytometry.

Disruption of cellular translational control by a viral truncated eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α kinase homolog

Phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α) is a common cellular mechanism to limit protein synthesis in stress conditions. Baculovirus PK2, which resembles the C-terminal half of a protein kinase domain, was found to inhibit both human and yeast eIF2α kinases. Insect cells infected with wild-type, but not pk2-deleted, baculovirus exhibited reduced eIF2α phosphorylation and increased translational activity. The negative regulatory effect of human protein kinase RNA-regulated (PKR), an eIF2α kinase, on virus production was counteracted by PK2, indicating that baculoviruses have evolved a unique strategy for disrupting a host stress response. PK2 was found in complex with PKR and blocked kinase autophosphorylation in vivo, suggesting a mechanism of kinase inhibition mediated by interaction between truncated and intact kinase domains.

Inhibition of Reaper-induced apoptosis by interaction with inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs)

IAPs comprise a family of inhibitors of apoptosis found in viruses and animals. In vivo binding studies demonstrated that both baculovirus and Drosophila IAPs physically interact with an apoptosis-inducing protein of Drosophila, Reaper (RPR), through their baculovirus IAP repeat (BIR) region. Expression of IAPs blocked RPR-induced apoptosis and resulted in the accumulation of RPR in punctate perinuclear locations which coincided with IAP localization. When expressed alone, RPR rapidly disappeared from the cells undergoing RPR-induced apoptosis. Expression of P35, a caspase inhibitor, also blocked RPR-induced apoptosis and delayed RPR decline, but RPR remained cytoplasmic in its location. Mutational analysis of RPR demonstrated that caspases were not directly responsible for RPR disappearance. The physical interaction of IAPs with RPR provides a molecular mechanism for IAP inhibition of RPR’s apoptotic activity.

Both N-terminal myosin-binding and C-terminal actin-binding sites on smooth muscle caldesmon are required for caldesmon-mediated inhibition of actin filament velocity

It has been suggested that the tethering caused by binding of the N-terminal region of smooth muscle caldesmon (CaD) to myosin and its C-terminal region to actin contributes to the inhibition of actin-filament movement over myosin heads in an in vitro motility assay. However, direct evidence for this assumption has been lacking. In this study, analysis of baculovirus-generated N-terminal and C-terminal deletion mutants of chicken-gizzard CaD revealed that the major myosin-binding site on the CaD molecule resides in a 30-amino acid stretch between residues 24 and 53, based on the very low level of binding of CaDΔ24–53 lacking the residues 24–53 to myosin compared with the level of binding of CaDΔ54–85 missing the adjacent residues 54–85 or of the full-length CaD. As expected, deletion of the region between residues 24 and 53 or between residues 54 and 85 had no effect on either actin-binding or inhibition of actomyosin ATPase activity. Deletion of residues 24–53 nearly abolished the ability of CaD to inhibit actin filament velocity in the in vitro motility experiments, whereas CaDΔ54–85 strongly inhibited actin filament velocity in a manner similar to that of full-length CaD. Moreover, CaD1–597, which lacks the major actin-binding site(s), did not inhibit actin-filament velocity despite the presence of the major myosin-binding site. These data provide direct evidence for the inhibition of actin filament velocity in the in vitro motility assay caused by the tethering of myosin to actin through binding of both the CaD N-terminal region to myosin and the C-terminal region to actin.

Recombinant parvovirus-like particles as an antigen carrier: A novel nonreplicative exogenous antigen to elicit protective antiviral cytotoxic T cells

To develop a strategy that promotes efficient antiviral immunity, hybrid virus-like particles (VLP) were prepared by self-assembly of the modified porcine parvovirus VP2 capsid protein carrying a CD8+ T cell epitope from the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus nucleoprotein. Immunization of mice with these hybrid pseudoparticles, without adjuvant, induced strong cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses against both peptide-coated- or virus-infected-target cells. This CD8+ class I-restricted cytotoxic activity persisted in vivo for at least 9 months. Furthermore, the hybrid parvovirus-like particles were able to induce a complete protection of mice against a lethal lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection. To our knowledge, this study represents the first demonstration that hybrid nonreplicative VLP carrying a single viral CTL epitope can induce protection against a viral lethal challenge, in the absence of any adjuvant. These recombinant particles containing a single type of protein are easily produced by the baculovirus expression system and, therefore, represent a promising and safe strategy to induce strong CTL responses for the elimination of virus-infected cells.