Os impactos de barreiras não tarifárias no comércio internacional de produtos brasileiros

O avanço da tecnologia e o acesso fácil e rápido das pessoas à informação e a produtos estão contribuindo para o aumento da competição comercial entre empresas e até mesmo entre países. Contudo, é necessário criar controles e medidas para garantir a qualidade de produtos e serviços domésticos e importados para a população, sem que se comprometa o equilíbrio de mercado competitivo. Assim, o presente trabalho avalia os impactos de Barreiras Não Tarifárias utilizadas pelos importadores de produtos brasileiros sobre as exportações brasileiras no ano de 2013, em particular o uso dos tipos de barreiras técnicas e sanitárias. O uso desse tipo de instrumento tem aumentado desde que foi criado e assim, com a diminuição global de tarifas alfandegárias, tem recebido mais atenção por parte de Instituições e formuladores de políticas econômicas e comerciais. Encontrou-se que é significativo o impacto desse tipo de medida sobre os produtos brasileiros exportados de um modo geral, bem como por tipo de medida. Controlado por outros fatores, o impacto da medida é positivo, que sugere um aumento nas exportações. Esse mesmo impacto foi observado na medida do tipo técnica; todavia, foi observado o oposto na medida do tipo sanitária, o que sugere que esse tipo de medida contribui para a redução das exportações brasileiras.

Os impactos da MP 579, convertida na lei 12.783, nos investimentos em geração de energia do Brasil

O ano de 2012 foi um marco para o setor elétrico brasileiro. Foi um ano de muitas surpresas, debates e mudanças de paradigmas. Um setor tido anteriormente como exemplo de estabilidade e conservadorismo, passou a ser alvo de dúvidas e críticas por parte de diferentes agentes, investidores, operadores, consumidores e governantes. As bases regulatórias do setor elétrico brasileiro são muito recentes. Entretanto é notável que houve um progresso nas últimas décadas, em direção a um melhor serviço prestado à população e ao desenvolvimento de um ambiente propício ao investimento. Ambos os objetivos foram acompanhados de uma maior preocupação com o atendimento da demanda por energia, crescente no país, e com a busca por tarifas baixas de forma a não haver impactos inflacionários. Desviando desta trajetória, a edição da MP 579 em setembro de 2012 levou a um clima de insegurança para novos investimentos devido à falta de clareza a cerca de muitas regras sancionadas, consequencia do insuficiente debate com o setor privado. A MP teve como ambição diminuir a tarifa de energia paga pelo consumidor final, e usou como principal mecanismo a não renovação das concessões de geração de energia, possibilidade prevista nos contratos de concessão de cada usina de geração de energia. Esta tese faz uma análise do setor de geração energia do Brasil. Nela é estudada a matriz energética, aspectos do modelo regulatório adotado, sua evolução nas últimas décadas, e a motivação para a sanção da MP. O objetivo central é estudar seu impacto nos investimentos no setor.

The impacts of TTIP on Brazil

The objective of this project is to analyze the effects for Brazil of the conclusion of TTIP. This is approached under different hypotheses: considering the effects on Brazil of a TTIP with the reduction of only tariff barriers between US and EU; introducing a partial reduction of non-tariff barriers; and, at last, with a complete reduction of these barriers. To finalize, an audacious alternative is assumed: a hypothetical participation of Brazil in the TTIP under a partial reduction of agricultural tariffs by the US and EU markets, and under a full liberalization of their agricultural markets. The methodology used to estimate non-tariff barriers was presented in the Ecorys Project (2009) developed by Berden e Francois to the European Commission.

The distortion of currencies misalignments on trade Instruments: or why currencies wars are not over

The negotiations of mega agreements between the US and the Pacific countries (TPP) and between the US and the EU (TTIP) are raising the attention of experts on international trade law and economics. TPP and TTIP are proclaimed to be the designers of the rules for the XXI Century. Old trade instruments such as tariffs are said to be no more important for TTIP because tariffs are negligible among those partners but significant to for TPP. Another relevant agreement in negotiation is between the EU and Mercosul, where tariffs are the most important issue in discussion. The main purpose of this paper is to shows that tariff are important for all these agreements, not because of its nominal value, but because the impacts of exchange rate misalignments on tariffs are so significant that all concessions can be distorted by overvalued and by devaluated currencies. The article is divided into several sections: the first gives an introduction to the issue; the second explains the methodologies used to determine exchange rate misalignments and also presents some results for Brazil, US and China; the third summarizes the methodology applied to calculate the impacts of exchange rate misalignments on the level of tariff protection through an exercise of “misalignment tariffication” and examines the effects of exchange rate variations on tariffs and their consequences for the multilateral trading system; the fourth creates a methodology to estimate exchange rates against a basket of currencies (a virtual currency of the World) and a proposal to deal with persistent and significant misalignments related to trade rules. The fifth presents some estimates for the main PTAs. The conclusions are present in the last section

Trade rules and exchange rate misalignments : in search for a WTO solution e medidas compensatórias

The debate on the link between trade rules and rules on exchange rates is raising the attention of experts on international trade law and economics. The main purpose of this paper is to analyze the impacts of exchange rate misalignments on tariffs as applied by the WTO – World Trade Organization. It is divided into five sections: the first one explains the methodology used to determine exchange rate misalignments and also presents its results for Brazil, US and China; the second summarizes the methodology applied to calculate the impacts of exchange rate misalignments on the level of tariff protection through an exercise of “misalignment tariffication”; the third examines the effects of exchange rate variations on tariffs and their consequences for the multilateral trading system; the fourth one creates a methodology to estimate exchange rates against a currency of the World and a proposal to deal with persistent and significant misalignments related to trade rules. The conclusions are present in the last section

Origens dos instrumentos de formação da política comercial norte-americana

L'objectif de cet article est de montrer l'existence de traces historiques permettant de lier les concepts de libre-échange et protectionnisme, tous les deux employés dans la politique de commerce extérieur des Etats-Unis. Parallèlement, on cherche à souligner l'importance de la législation et des principes formulés dans ce pays et leur rôle explicatif concernant les motivations de la structure du commerce international après 1945. Ce rôle a en effet contribué à qu'on puisse mieux comprendre les tournées de négociations du GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) jusqu'à la création de l'OMC (Organisation Mondiale du Commerce), en 1995. on traite également des raisons pour lesquelles le commerce international aux Etats-Unis est non seulement une question d'Etat mais encore une question de la société.

Comércio internacional e meio ambiente: estímulo à produção sustentável ou mero protecionismo comercial a posição do Brasil em dois casos de litígio

The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1994 as a result of the Uruguay Round, and has as its principal aim advocate for the maintenance of free trade between nations. The preamble of its Constitutive Agreement specifically cites as an institution the goal of achieving sustainable development and the pursuit of protecting and preserving the environment, bringing into the sphere of world trade the idea that concern for the environmental cause is not restricted only the group of environmentalists, but rather has entered the economic landscape in a way not only ideological, but also pragmatic. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947, part of the GATT 1994, contains a device that allows the adoption of trade restrictive measures, provided that such measures aimed at protecting the environment - Article XX. The Settlement Body (DSB) is part of the WTO and acts in dissolving disputes between the countries motivated by trade. It examines two cases where countries have imposed restrictive trade measures with environmental justification. The first case was closed in 1996, with award of damages given to Brazil, on the breakdown of U.S. environmental legislation imposed on imported gasoline from Brazil - and the second, begun in 2005 and closed in 2007, coming out victorious again Brazil is on the import ban on retreaded tires to Brazil. The objective is to answer the question: how the environment is treated in the midst of trade discussions - which is aimed at its protection or its use with economic objectives in disguise? For the preparation of this work, extensive documentary research was undertaken with the virtual site of the WTO to review the entire production of legal cases and subsequent analysis of the key issue for the work, and literature of authors who have studied the tense relationship between trade international environment. The first case, it could be seen that the political movement performed by the U.S. with the aim of achieving acceptable standards of air quality was an institutional effort to ensure the quality of air, and thus would be inappropriate to say that the regulation of gasoline was merely a disguised trade barrier.However, a careful analysis of the implementation and operation of gasoline regulation may reveal intentions disguised trade and U.S. environmental argument did not hold. The weight of this environment was relegated, since there were clearly outside interests to the environmental cause. The second case, it was realized that, despite clear attempts by the EC to promote ecological dumping, send when brought to Brazil, supposedly a country with weaker environmental structure on surveillance, a residue that, pursuant to internal policies, as could not be sent to their own landfills, the Brazilian discourse remained focused on the environmental cause, and this sort there was the existence of disguised trade barriers, but of importance, at least a priori, the discussion of foreign forces on the environment environment because there is no way to legally justify the reversal of the total understanding of the first judging body, the sight of all the arguments presented by Brazil and the nonsubmission of new facts upon appeal. Still, quite heartening to reflect on the role of trade liberalization on the environment in general, because, while they do not reach a definitive conclusion will reveal positions in both directions, both for and against, the that only adds to the discussions and makes this a very fertile topic for future research

Latin America and the Caribbean in the World Economy 2005-2006

Includes bibliography

A preliminary physicochemical, exergetic and economic study of hydrogen production utilizing glycerol

This work has as objective to demonstrate technical and economic viability of hydrogen production utilizing glycerol. The volume of this substance, which was initially produced by synthetic ways (from oil-derived products), has increased dramatically due mainly to biodiesel production through transesterification process which has glycerol as main residue. The surplus amount of glycerol has been generally utilized to feed poultry or as fuel in boilers, beyond other applications such as production of soaps, chemical products for food industry, explosives, and others. The difficulty to allocate this additional amount of glycerol has become it in an enormous environment problem, in contrary to the objective of biodiesel chain, which is to diminish environmental impact substituting oil and its derivatives, which release more emissions than biofuels, do not contribute to CO2-cycle and are not renewable sources. Beyond to utilize glycerol in combustion processes, this material could be utilized for hydrogen production. However, a small quantity of works (theoretical and experimental) and reports concerning this theme could be encountered. Firstly, the produced glycerol must be purified since non-reacted amounts of materials, inclusively catalysts, contribute to deactivate catalysts utilized in hydrogen production processes. The volume of non-reacted reactants and non-utilized catalysts during transesterification process could be reutilized. Various technologies of thermochemical generation of hydrogen that utilizes glycerol (and other fuels) were evaluated and the greatest performances and their conditions are encountered as soon as the most efficient technology of hydrogen production. Firstly, a physicochemical analysis must be performed. This step has as objective to evaluate the necessary amount of reactants to produce a determined volume of hydrogen and determine thermodynamic conditions (such as temperature and pressure) where the major performances of hydrogen production could be encountered. The calculations are based on the process where advance degrees are found and hence, fractions of products (especially hydrogen, however, CO2, CO, CH4 and solid carbon could be also encountered) are calculated. To produce 1 Nm3/h of gaseous hydrogen (necessary for a PEMFC - Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell - containing an electric efficiency of about 40%, to generate 1 kWh), 0,558 kg/h of glycerol is necessary in global steam reforming, 0,978 kg/h of glycerol in partial oxidation and cracking processes, and 0,782 kg/h of glycerol in autothermal reforming process. The dry reforming process could not be performed to produce hydrogen utilizing glycerol, in contrary to the utilization of methane, ethanol, and other hydrocarbons. In this study, steam reforming process was preferred due mainly to higher efficiencies of production and the need of minor amount of glycerol as cited above. In the global steam reforming of glycerine, for one mole of glycerol, three moles of water are necessary to produce three moles of CO2 and seven moles of H2. The response reactions process was utilized to predict steam reforming process more accurately. In this mean, the production of solid carbon, CO, and CH4, beyond CO2 and hydrogen was predicted. However, traces of acetaldehyde (C2H2), ethylene (C2H4), ethylene glycol, acetone, and others were encountered in some experimental studies. The rates of determined products obviously depend on the adopted catalysts (and its physical and chemical properties) and thermodynamic conditions of hydrogen production. Eight reactions of steam reforming and cracking were predicted considering only the determined products. In the case of steam reforming at 600°C, the advance degree of this reactor could attain its maximum value, i.e., overall volume of reactants could be obtained whether this reaction is maintained at 1 atm. As soon as temperature of this reaction increases the advance degree also increase, in contrary to the pressure, where advance degree decrease as soon as pressure increase. The fact of temperature of reforming is relatively small, lower costs of installation could be attained, especially cheaper thermocouples and smaller amount of thermo insulators and materials for its assembling. Utilizing the response reactions process in steam reforming, the predicted volumes of products, for the production of 1 Nm3/h of H2 and thermodynamic conditions as cited previously, were 0,264 kg/h of CO (13% of molar fraction of reaction products), 0,038 kg/h of CH4 (3% of molar fraction), 0,028 kg/h of C (3% of molar fraction), and 0,623 kg/h of CO2 (20% of molar fraction). Through process of water-gas shift reactions (WGSR) an additional amount of hydrogen could be produced utilizing mainly the volumes of produced CO and CH4. The overall results (steam reforming plus WGSR) could be similar to global steam reforming. An attention must to be taking into account due to the possibility to produce an additional amount of CH4 (through methanation process) and solid carbon (through Boudouard process). The production of solid carbon must to be avoided because this reactant diminishes (filling the pores) and even deactivate active area of catalysts. To avoid solid carbon production, an additional amount of water is suggested. This method could be also utilized to diminish the volume of CO (through WGSR process) since this product is prejudicial for the activity of low temperature fuel cells (such as PEMFC). In some works, more three or even six moles of water are suggested. A net energy balance of studied hydrogen production processes (at 1 atm only) was developed. In this balance, low heat value of reactant and products and utilized energy for the process (heat supply) were cited. In the case of steam reforming utilizing response reactions, global steam reforming, and cracking processes, the maximum net energy was detected at 700°C. Partial oxidation and autothermal reforming obtained negative net energy in all cited temperatures despite to be exothermic reactions. For global steam reforming, the major value was 114 kJ/h. In the case of steam reforming, the highest value of net energy was detected in this temperature (-170 kJ/h). The major values were detected in the cracking process (up to 2586 kJ/h). The exergetic analysis has as objective, associated with physicochemical analysis, to determine conditions where reactions could be performed at higher efficiencies with lower losses. This study was performed through calculations of exergetic and rational efficiencies, and irreversibilities. In this analysis, as in the previously performed physicochemical analysis, conditions such as temperature of 600°C and pressure of 1 atm for global steam reforming process were suggested due to lower irreversibility and higher efficiencies. Subsequently, higher irreversibilities and lower efficiencies were detected in autothermal reforming, partial oxidation and cracking process. Comparing global reaction of steam reforming with more-accurate steam reforming, it was verified that efficiencies were diminished and irreversibilities were increased. These results could be altered with introduction of WGSR process. An economic analysis could be performed to evaluate the cost of generated hydrogen and determine means to diminish the costs. This analysis suggests an annual period of operation between 5000-7000 hours, interest rates of up to 20% per annum (considering Brazilian conditions), and pay-back of up to 20 years. Another considerations must to be take into account such as tariffs of utilized glycerol and electricity (to be utilized as heat source and (or) for own process as pumps, lamps, valves, and other devices), installation (estimated as US$ 15.000 for a plant of 1 Nm3/h) and maintenance cost. The adoption of emission trading schemes such as carbon credits could be performed since this is a process with potential of mitigates environment impact. Not considering credit carbons, the minor cost of calculated H2 was 0,16288 US$/kWh if glycerol is also utilized as heat sources and 0,17677 US$/kWh if electricity is utilized as heat sources. The range of considered tariff of glycerol was 0-0,1 US$/kWh (taking as basis LHV of H2) and the tariff of electricity is US$ 0,0867 US$/kWh, with demand cost of 12,49 US$/kW. The costs of electricity were obtained by Companhia Bandeirante, localized in São Paulo State. The differences among costs of hydrogen production utilizing glycerol and electricity as heat source was in a range between 0,3-5,8%. This technology in this moment is not mature. However, it allows the employment generation with the additional utilization of glycerol, especially with plants associated with biodiesel plants. The produced hydrogen and electricity could be utilized in own process, increasing its final performance.

Review of Caribbean economic and social performance in the 1980's and 1990's

Includes bibliography

Trade and the environment in the context of the World Trade Organization

Includes bibliography

Impact of changes in the European Union import regimes for sugar, banana and rice on selected CARICOM countries

Includes bibliography

Barriers to Latin American and Caribbean exports in the US market, 1998-1999

Includes bibliography

Trade policy in CARICOM: overview of the main trade policy measures

Includes bibliography

Analysis of the effects of trade opening on household welfare: an application to Chile, 1999-2006

Incluye bibliografía