Corroles : synthesis, functionalization and application as chemosensors

O trabalho de investigação apresentado nesta dissertação foi desenvolvido tendo como objectivo a síntese e funcionalização de meso-triarilcorróis para utilização como quimiossensores. Este trabalho encontra-se apresentado ao longo de cinco capítulos. No primeiro capítulo são apresentadas as características gerais, as metodologias de síntese e de funcionalização de macrociclos de tipo corrólico, e descrevemse algumas aplicações em que têm sido utilizados. São ainda abordadas algumas das propriedades e características dos quimiossensores e os mecanismos de deteção de diversos analítos. No segundo capítulo, após uma pequena introdução às reações de Wittig e de Diels-Alder, escolhidas para a funcionalização do macrociclo corrólico, descreve-se o estudo efectuado para a obtenção do complexo de gálio(III) do 3- vinil-5,10,15-tris(pentafluorofenil)corrol e o seu comportamento como dieno, em reações de Diels-Alder na presença dos dienófilos 1,4-benzoquinona e 1,4- naftoquinona. Desses estudos resultaram dois aductos cuja habilidade sensorial, bem como a dos seus precursores, foi estudada, em solução, na presença de aniões esféricos (F-, Br-, Cl-), lineares (CN-) e volumosos (CH3COO-, H2PO4 -). Dos macrociclos estudados verificou-se que o corrol base-livre 5,10,15-tris(pentafluorofenil)corrol apresenta uma elevada sensibilidade para o anião fluoreto (F-), e que a coordenação do núcleo corrólico com gálio(III) diminui a afinidade para este anião. Em geral, todos os compostos mostraram afinidade para o anião cianeto (CN-) mesmo quando em suportes poliméricos. O gel de poliacrilamida revelou-se muito promissor na determinação de CN- em amostras de água. No terceiro capítulo é avaliada a reatividade do complexo de gálio(III) do 3- vinil-5,10,15-tris(pentafluorofenil)corrol ainda como dieno mas agora na presença de um dienófilo linear, o acetilenodicarboxilato de dimetilo. Desse estudo resultaram dois novos derivados corrólicos. A habilidade sensorial dos mesmos perante os aniões fluoreto, cianeto, acetato, e fosfato foi avaliada por espectroscopia de absorção e emissão tendo um dos aductos mostrado ser colorimétrico para o anião cianeto. No quarto capítulo descreve-se a síntese e caracterização de dois conjugados do tipo corrol-cumarina, resultantes de reações de Hetero-Diels-Alder entre o 3-vinil-5,10,15-tris(pentafluorofenil)corrolatogálio(III)(piridina) e orto-quinonasmetídeos gerados in situ a partir de reacções de Knoevenagel entre cumarinas e paraformaldeído. Realizaram-se estudos de afinidade sensorial para aniões e catiões com estes macrociclos, bem como com conjugados porfirinacumarina análogos. A inserção de uma unidade cumarina conferiu uma excepcional solubilidade tendo os novos derivados apresentado solubilidade em etanol. No quinto e último capítulo desta dissertação é avaliada a capacidade sensorial do 5,10,15-tris(pentafluorofenil)corrol e da sua espécie monoaniónica, para os catiões metálicos Na+, Ca2+, Cu2+, Cd2+, Pb2+, Hg2+, Ag+, Al3+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Cr3+, Ga3+, Fe3+ em tolueno e acetonitrilo. Os macrociclos corrólicos mostraram ser selectivos e colorimétricos para o catião Hg2+. Neste trabalho descreve-se ainda a síntese do derivado -iminocorrol, que após funcionalização com o 3-isocianatopropiltrimetoxisilano originou um derivado do tipo alcoxisilano, que foi, posteriormente, ancorado a nanopartículas comerciais de sílica. As novas nanopartículas ancoradas com o alcoxisilano corrol foram estudadas na presença de Cu2+, Hg2+ e Ag+. Na presença do catião Ag+ assistiu-se a uma mudança de cor, de verde para amarelo.

Avaliação do desempenho in vivo do biovidro FastOs™

O conceito de bioatividade surgiu com a descoberta, no início década de 70, de que algumas composições vítreas (ex.: 45S5 Bioglass®), tinham a capacidade de estabelecer uma ligação direta e estável com os tecidos vivos. Desde então, este grupo de biomateriais tem vindo a receber uma atenção cada vez maior por parte dos investigadores, tendo como motivação principal a busca de novas composições com propriedades mais adequadas para a regeneração óssea do que as composições comercialmente disponíveis. Na presente tese, avaliou-se o desempenho in vivo de duas composições de biovidro do sistema diopsite (CaMgSi2O6) - fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) - fosfato tricálcico (3CaO•P2O5) aplicados em defeitos ósseos de tamanho não crítico em carneiros, tendo também sido avaliada a biocompatibilidade dos biomateriais através da aplicação subcutânea de placas dos mesmos vidros. O trabalho realizado também incluiu a avaliação dos materiais in vitro, através de estudos de biomineralização em fluido corporal simulado e estudos de degradação. Os biomateriais foram comparados com o biovidro 45S5 Bioglass®, sendo que em termos de bioatividade in vitro, as duas composições investigadas apresentaram um maior potencial bioativo, levando à formação de uma camada superficial de hidroxiapatite carbonatada, em contraste com a formação de calcite na composição comercial, sob condições idênticas. Os testes de degradação in vitro também apresentaram resultados melhores para as duas novas composições, traduzidos por variações de pH e taxas de degradação menores do que os observados no caso do 45S5 Bioglass®. A avaliação in vivo dos implantes subcutâneos permitiu apurar a biocompatibilidade dos biovidros testados, tendo sido considerados ligeiramente irritantes. Os resultados relativos à aplicação dos pós de vidro bioativo nos defeitos ósseos não foram obtidos em tempo útil de modo a poderem ser incluídos na presente tese. Considerando o desempenho in vitro e a biocompatibilidade dos materiais estudados, estes podem apontar-se como materiais promissores para aplicações em engenharia de tecidos, particularmente na regeneração do tecido ósseo.

A actividade sintética de hMSCs em contacto com vidros bioativos

Os vidros bioativos constituem um material apropriado para o preenchimento de defeitos ósseos, como alternativa a enxertos autólogos, uma vez que, quando expostos a fluidos fisiológicos promovem a formação de uma ligação com o tecido ósseo sob a forma de uma camada de hidroxiapatite carbonatada. No presente trabalho caracterizaram-se vidros bioativos sem conteúdo alcalino, cuja composição incide no sistema binário de diópsido (CaMgSi2O6) e fosfato de tricálcio (3CaO·P2O5), em função da sua molhabilidade, carga superficial, perfil de degradação, carácter bioativo em fluido fisiológico simulado e do seu comportamento in vitro em contacto com células estaminais mesenquimais humanas (hMSCs). A medição do ângulo de contacto inicial de água sobre os vidros demonstrou o carácter hidrofílico dos vidros investigados. A determinação do potencial zeta mostrou que a carga superficial dos vidros é negativa, sendo mais negativa na composição Di-70. O estudo da biodegradação dos vidros, efetuado através da sua imersão em Tris-HCl, permitiu concluir que a perda de peso dos vidros foi reduzida. A caraterização in vitro em meio acelular foi efetuada através da imersão dos vidros numa solução de fluido fisiológico simulado (SBF) e verificou-se que estes possuem capacidade de formar uma camada de hidroxiapatite carbonatada à sua superfície após 7 dias, detetável por XRD, FTIR e SEM/EDS, sugerindo que este conjunto de vidros é potencialmente bioativo, e poderá estimular a proliferação e diferenciação celular. A resposta das hMSCs em cultura aos vidros bioativos foi avaliada em termos de atividade metabólica, morfologia, viabilidade, proliferação e diferenciação osteogénica e conclui-se que os biovidros Di-60 e Di-70 poderão constituir um suporte viável para a proliferação e diferenciação de hMSCs.

Alkali-free bioactive glasses for bone regeneration

Bioactive glasses and glass-ceramics are a class of third generation biomaterials which elicit a special response on their surface when in contact with biological fluids, leading to strong bonding to living tissues. The purpose of the present study was to develop diopside based alkali-free bioactive glasses in order to achieve good sintering behaviour, high bioactivity, and a dissolution/ degradation rates compatible with the target applications in bone regeneration and tissue engineering. Another aim was to understand the structure-property relationships in the investigated bioactive glasses. In this quest, various glass compositions within the Diopside (CaMgSi2O6) – Fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F) – Tricalcium phosphate (3CaO•P2O5) system have been investigated. All the glasses were prepared by melt-quenching technique and characterized by a wide array of complementary characterization techniques. The glass-ceramics were produced by sintering of glass powders compacts followed by a suitable heat treatment to promote the nucleation and crystallization phenomena. Furthermore, selected parent glass compositions were doped with several functional ions and an attempt to understand their effects on the glass structure, sintering ability and on the in vitro bio-degradation and biomineralization behaviours of the glasses was made. The effects of the same variables on the devitrification (nucleation and crystallization) behaviour of glasses to form bioactive glass-ceramics were also investigated. Some of the glasses exhibited high bio-mineralization rates, expressed by the formation of a surface hydroxyapatite layer within 1–12 h of immersion in a simulated body fluid (SBF) solution. All the glasses showed relatively lower degradation rates in comparison to that of 45S5 Bioglass®. Some of the glasses showed very good in vitro behaviour and the glasses co-doped with zinc and strontium showed an in vitro dose dependent behaviour. The as-designed bioactive glasses and glass–ceramic materials are excellent candidates for applications in bone regeneration and for the fabrication of scaffolds for tissue engineering.

Surface reactivity enhancement of silica-based glass-ceramic scaffolds

A paradigm shift is taking place from using transplanting tissue and synthetic implants to a tissue engineering approach that aims to regenerate damaged tissues by combining cells from the body with highly porous scaffold biomaterials, which act as templates, guiding the growth of new tissue. The central focus of this thesis was to produce porous glass and glass-ceramic scaffolds that exhibits a bioactive and biocompatible behaviour with specific surface reactivity in synthetic physiological fluids and cell-scaffold interactions, enhanced by composition and thermal treatments applied. Understanding the sintering behaviour and the interaction between the densification and crystallization processes of glass powders was essential for assessing the ideal sintering conditions for obtaining a glass scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Our main goal was to carry out a comprehensive study of the bioactive glass sintering, identifying the powder size and sintering variables effect, for future design of sintered glass scaffolds with competent microstructures. The developed scaffolds prepared by the salt sintering method using a 3CaO.P2O5 - SiO2 - MgO glass system, with additions of Na2O with a salt, NaCl, exhibit high porosity, interconnectivity, pore size distribution and mechanical strength suitable for bone repair applications. The replacement of 6 % MgO by Na2O in the glass network allowed to tailor the dissolution rate and bioactivity of the glass scaffolds. Regarding the biological assessment, the incorporation of sodium to the composition resulted in an inibition cell response for small periods. Nevertheless it was demonstrated that for 21 days the cells response recovered and are similar for both glass compositions. The in vitro behaviour of the glass scaffolds was tested by introducing scaffolds to simulated body fluid for 21 days. Energy-dispersive Xray spectroscopy and SEM analyses proved the existence of CaP crystals for both compositions. Crystallization forming whitlockite was observed to affect the dissolution behaviour in simulated body fluid. By performing different heat treatments, it was possible to control the bioactivity and biocompatability of the glass scaffolds by means of a controlled crystallization. To recover and tune the bioactivity of the glass-ceramic with 82 % crystalline phase, different methods have been applied including functionalization using 3- aminopropyl-triethoxysilane (APTES). The glass ceramic modified surface exhibited an accelerated crystalline hydroxyapatite layer formation upon immersion in SBF after 21 days while the as prepared glass-ceramic had no detected formation of calcium phosphate up to 5 months. A sufficient mechanical support for bone tissue regeneration that biodegrade later at a tailorable rate was achievable with the glass–ceramic scaffold. Considering the biological assessment, scaffolds demonstrated an inductive effect on the proliferation of cells. The cells showed a normal morphology and high growth rate when compared to standard culture plates. This study opens up new possibilities for using 3CaO.P2O5–SiO2–MgO glass to manufacture various structures, while tailoring their bioactivity by controlling the content of the crystalline phase. Additionally, the in vitro behaviour of these structures suggests the high potential of these materials to be used in the field of tissue regeneration.

Diopside-fluorapatite-wollastonite based bioactive glasses and glass-ceramics

Bioactive glasses and glass–ceramics are a class of biomaterials which elicit special response on their surface when in contact with biological fluids, leading to strong bonding to living tissue. This particular trait along with good sintering ability and high mechanical strength make them ideal materials for scaffold fabrication. The work presented in this thesis is directed towards understanding the composition-structure-property relationships in potentially bioactive glasses designed in CaOMgOP2O5SiO2F system, in some cases with added Na2O. The main emphasis has been on unearthing the influence of glass composition on molecular structure, sintering ability and bioactivity of phosphosilicate glasses. The parent glass compositions have been designed in the primary crystallization field of the pseudo-ternary system of diopside (CaO•MgO•2SiO2) – fluorapatite (9CaO•3P2O5•CaF2) – wollastonite (CaO•SiO2), followed by studying the impact of compositional variations on the structure-property relationships and sintering ability of these glasses. All the glasses investigated in this work have been synthesized via melt-quenching route and have been characterized for their molecular structure, sintering ability, chemical degradation and bioactivity using wide array of experimental tools and techniques. It has been shown that in all investigated glass compositions the silicate network was mainly dominated by Q2 units while phosphate in all the glasses was found to be coordinated in orthophosphate environment. The glass compositions designed in alkali-free region of diopside – fluorapatite system demonstrated excellent sintering ability and good bioactivity in order to qualify them as potential materials for scaffold fabrication while alkali-rich bioactive glasses not only hinder the densification during sintering but also induce cytotoxicity in vitro, thus, are not ideal candidates for in vitro tissue engineering. One of our bioglass compositions with low sodium content has been tested successfully both in vivo and in preliminary clinical trials. But this work needs to be continued and deepened. The dispersing of fine glass particles in aqueous media or in other suitable solvents, and the study of the most important factors that affect the rheology of the suspensions are essential steps to enable the manufacture of porous structures with tailor-made hierarchical pores by advanced processing techniques such as Robocasting.

Development of infrared spectroscopy for assessing bacterial quality in foods

Rapid and specific detection of foodborne bacteria that can cause food spoilage or illness associated to its consumption is an increasingly important task in food industry. Bacterial detection, identification, and classification are generally performed using traditional methods based on biochemical or serological tests and the molecular methods based on DNA or RNA fingerprints. However, these methodologies are expensive, time consuming and laborious. Infrared spectroscopy is a reliable, rapid, and economic technique which could be explored as a tool for bacterial analysis in the food industry. In this thesis it was evaluated the potential of IR spectroscopy to study the bacterial quality of foods. In Chapter 2, it was developed a calibration model that successfully allowed to predict the bacterial concentration of naturally contaminated cooked ham samples kept at refrigeration temperature during 8 days. In this part, it was developed the methodology that allowed the best reproducibility of spectra from bacteria colonies with minimal sample preparation, which was used in the subsequent work. Several attempts trying different resolutions and number of scans in the IR were made. A spectral resolution of 4 cm-1, with 32 scans were the settings that allowed the best results. Subsequently, in Chapter 3, it was made an attempt to identify 22 different foodborne bacterial genera/species using IR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analysis. The principal component analysis, used as an exploratory technique, allowed to form distinct groups, each one corresponding to a different genus, in most of the cases. Then, a hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to further analyse the group formation and the possibility of distinction between species of the same bacterial genus. It was observed that IR spectroscopy not only is suitable to the distinction of the different genera, but also to differentiate species of the same genus, with the simultaneous use of principal component analysis and cluster analysis techniques. The utilization of IR spectroscopy and multivariate statistical analysis were also investigated in Chapter 4, in order to confirm the presence of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. isolated from contaminated foods, after growth in selective medium. This would allow to substitute the traditional biochemical and serological methods that are used to confirm these pathogens and that delay the obtainment of the results up to 2 days. The obtained results allowed the distinction of 3 different Listeria species and the distinction of Salmonella spp. from other bacteria that can be mistaken with them. Finally, in chapter 5, high pressure processing, an emerging methodology that permits to produce microbiologically safe foods and extend their shelf-life, was applied to 12 foodborne bacteria to determine their resistance and the effects of pressure in cells. A treatment of 300 MPa, during 15 minutes at room temperature was applied. Gram-negative bacteria were inactivated to undetectable levels and Gram-positive showed different resistances. Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus decreased only 2 logs and Listeria innocua decreased about 5 logs. IR spectroscopy was performed in bacterial colonies before and after HPP in order to investigate the alterations of the cellular compounds. It was found that high pressure alters bands assigned to some cellular components as proteins, lipids, oligopolysaccharides, phosphate groups from the cell wall and nucleic acids, suggesting disruption of the cell envelopes. In this work, bacterial quantification and classification, as well as assessment of cellular compounds modification with high pressure processing were successfully performed. Taking this into account, it was showed that IR spectroscopy is a very promising technique to analyse bacteria in a simple and inexpensive manner.

Optimisation of an aptamer-biosensor to detect C-reactive protein

Dissertação de Mestrado, Engenharia Biológica, Faculdade de Engenharia de Recursos Naturais, Universidade do Algarve, 2009

Identificação de indicadores moleculares de bem-estar durante o cultivo de dourada (Sparus aurata, Linnaeus 1758), utilizando técnicas de proteómica

Dissertação de Mestrado, Biologia Marinha, Especialização em Biotecnologia Marinha, Faculdade de Ciências do Mar e do Ambiente, Universidade do Algarve, 2008

Modeling Porphyra Haitenansis grouth in Huangdun Bay

Dissertação de Mestrado, Gestão da Água e da Costa, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, 2007

Dissection of the early steps in the assembly of the 20S proteasome in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Tese de dout., Bioquímica (Biologia Celular e Molecular), Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Univ. do Algarve, 2010

Tolerância à amónia e grau de ureotelia no xarroco, Halobatrachus didactylus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)

Tese mest., Biologia Marinha, Universidade do Algarve, Faculdade de Ciências do Mar e do Ambiente, 2008

A proteomic study of the effects of nutrient restriction in utero on postnatal metabolism

It is widely recognized that protein restriction in utero may cause metabolic and endocrine adaptations, which may be of benefit to the neonate on a short-term basis but may cause adverse long-term conditions such as obesity, Type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Adequate foetal and early post natal nutrient and energy supply is therefore essential for adult animal health, performance and life span. In this project it was investigated the progressive adaptations of the hepatic proteome in male mink offspring exposed to either a low protein (FL) or an adequate protein (FA) diet in utero fed either on a low protein (LP) or on an adequate (AP) diet from weaning until sexual maturity. Specifically, the aim was to determine the metabolic adaptations at selected phases of the animal’s first annual cycle and establish the metabolic priorities occurring during those phases. The three different morphological stages studied during the first year of development included, end of bone growth at 4 months of age, maximal fat accretion at 6 months of age and sexual maturity at 12 months of age. A reference proteome of mink liver coming from these different animal groups were generated using 2D electrophoresis coupled to MALDI-TOF analysis and the way in which dietary treatment affect their proteome was established. Approximately 330 proteins were detected in the mink liver proteome. A total of 27 comparisons were carried out between all different animal groups which resulted in 20 differentially expressed proteins. An extensive survey was conducted towards the characterization of these proteins including their subcellular localization, the biological processes in which they are involved and their molecular functions. This characterization allowed the identification of proteins in various processes including the glycolysis and fatty acid metabolism. The detailed analysis of the different dietary treatment animal groups was indicative of differences in metabolism and also to changes associated with development in mink.

Synthesis and evaluation of polymer nanoparticles for delivery in RPE cells

Ocular pathologies are among the most debilitating medical conditions affecting all segments of the population. Traditional treatment options are often ineffective, and gene therapy has the potential to become an alternative approach for the treatment of several pathologies. Methacrylate polymers have been described as highly biocompatible and are successfully used in medical applications. Due to their cationic nature, these polymers can be used to form polyplexes with DNA for its delivery. This work aims to study the potential of PDMAEMA (poly(2-(N,N’-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)) as a non viral gene delivery system to the retina. The first part of this work aimed to study the potential for gene delivery of a previously synthesized PDMAEMA polymer of high molecular weight (354kDa). In the second part, we synthesized by RAFT a PDMAEMA with a lower molecular weight (103.3kDa) and similarly, evaluated its ability to act as a gene delivery vehicle. PDMAEMA/DNA polyplexes were prepared at 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 20 nitrogen/phosphorous (N/P) ratio for the 354kDa PDMAEMA and at 5 and 7.5 for the 103.3kDa PDMAEMA. Dynamic light scattering and zeta potential measurements confirmed the nanosize and positive charge of polyplexes for all ratios and for both polymers. Both high and low Mw PDMAEMA were able to efficiently complex and protect DNA from DNase I degradation. Their cytotoxicity was evaluated using a non-retinal cell line (HEK293) and a retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell line (D407). We have found that cytotoxicity of the free polymer is concentration and time dependent, as expected, and negligible for all the concentrations of the PDMAEMA-DNA polyplexes. Furthermore, for the concentrations to be used in vivo, the 354kDa PDMAEMA showed no signs of inflammation upon injection in the intravitreal space of C57BL/6 mice. The transfection efficiency, as evaluated by fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, showed that the D407 retinal cells were transfected by polyplexes of both high and low Mw PDMAEMA, but with varied efficiency, which was dependent on the N/P ratio. Althogether, these results suggest that PDMAEMA is a feasible candidate for non-viral gene delivery to the retina, and this work constitutes the basis of further studies to elucidate the bottleneck in transfection and further optimization of the material.

On the solvation in lipid bilayers measured by pyrene fluorescence: thermal and molecular composition influence on equivalent polarity in lipidic mixtures

Phosphatidylcholine (PC), sphingomyelin (SM) and cholesterol (CHOL) are major constituents of mammalian cell membranes. DPPC/CHOL and DPPC/DMPC are well-known binary mixtures. POPC/CHOL, DOPC/CHOL, egg-SM/CHOL, egg-SM/POPC and egg-SM/DOPC are less studied, but also important for the comprehension of the POPC/egg-SM/CHOL mixtures. These provide complex media for which polarity is hard to access. It is mainly determined by the water penetrating the bilayer (unevenly distributed creating a polarity gradient), though the influence of the dipoles from phospholipids (e.g. –PO, –CO, –OH) and the double bond in the steroid ring of CHOL cannot be neglected. CHOL derivatives are an interesting tool to verify the influence of the double bonds in the polarization of its surroundings. Pyrene fluorescence was used to access an equivalent polarity (associated to the dielectric constant) near the lipid/water interface of lipid bilayers. POPC/CHOL and DOPC/CHOL have similar thermal behavior and variation with CHOL content, though for lower CHOL content the equivalent polarity is higher for the DOPC/CHOL mixtures. The studies with DPPC and DMPC showed that pyrene does not seem to have a marked preference for either ordered or disordered phases. For DPPC/CHOL and egg-SM/CHOL the highlight goes to the behavior of the mixtures at higher CHOL amounts, where there is a substantial change in the thermal behavior and polarity values especially for the egg-SM/CHOL mixture. Egg-SM/POPC and egg-SM/DOPC show different behavior depending on which phospholipid has a higher molar proportion. The ternary mixtures analyzed do not exhibit significant differences, though there is the indication of the existence of a more ordered environment at lower temperatures and a less ordered environment for higher temperatures. The presence of 7DHC or DCHOL in egg-SM bilayers showed a tendency for the same behavior detected upon mixing higher amounts of CHOL.