Hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of barbiturates in whole blood samples

Here, we present a method for measuring barbiturates (butalbital, secobarbital, pentobarbital, and phenobarbital) in whole blood samples. To accomplish these measurements, analytes were extracted by means of hollow-fiber liquid-phase microextraction in the three-phase mode. Hollow-fiber pores were filled with decanol, and a solution of sodium hydroxide (pH 13) was introduced into the lumen of the fiber (acceptor phase). The fiber was submersed in the acidified blood sample, and the system was subjected to an ultrasonic bath. After a 5 min extraction, the acceptor phase was withdrawn from the fiber and dried under a nitrogen stream. The residue was reconstituted with ethyl acetate and trimethylanilinium hydroxide. An aliquot of 1.0 mu L of this solution was injected into the gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer, with the derivatization reaction occurring in the hot injector port (flash methylation). The method proved to be simple and rapid, and only a small amount of organic solvent (decanol) was needed for extraction. The detection limit was 0.5 mu g/mL for all the analyzed barbiturates. The calibration curves were linear over the specified range (1.0 to 10.0 mu g/mL). This method was successfully applied to postmortem samples (heart blood and femoral blood) collected from three deceased persons previously exposed to barbiturates.

Tributyltin in crustacean tissues: analytical performance and validation of method

The hermit crab Clibanarius vittatus is a typical organism from intertidal regions being considered as a good bioindicator of tributyltin presence at these environments. Thus this study presents the analytical performance and validation method for TBT quantification in tissues of C. vittatus by gas chromatography with pulsed flame photometric detector (GC-PFPD) after extraction with an apolar solvent (toluene) and Grignard derivatization. The limits of detection of the method (LOD) were 2.0 and 2.8 ng g-1 for TBT and DBT (dibutyltin), respectively, and its limits of quantification (LOQ) were 6.6 and 8.9 ng g-1 for TBT and DBT, respectively. The method was applied to samples from Santos Estuary, São Paulo State, Brazil. TBT and DBT concentrations ranged from 26.7 to 175.0 ng g-1 and from 46.2 to 156.0 ng g-1, respectively. These concentrations are worrisome since toxic effects (such as endocrine disruption) have been reported for other organisms even under lower levels of registred at this study.

Food safety in wine: optimization of analytical controls and evaluation of production technologies

This PhD thesis has been proposed to validate and then apply innovative analytical methodologies for the determination of compounds with harmful impact on human health, such as biogenic amines and ochratoxin A in wines. Therefore, the influence of production technology (pH, amino acids precursor and use of different malolactic starters) on biogenic amines content in wines was evaluated. An HPLC method for simultaneous determination of amino acids and amines with precolumnderivatization with 9-Fluorenyl-methoxycarbonyl chloride (FMOC-Cl) and UV detection was developed. Initially, the influence of pH, time of derivatization, gradient profile were studied. In order to improve the separation of amino acids and amines and reduce the time of analysis, it was decided to study the influence of different flows and the use of different columns in the chromatographic method. Firstly, a C18 Luna column was used and later two monolithic columns Chromolith in series. It appeared to be suitable for an easy, precise and accurate determination of a relatively large number of amino acids and amines in wines. This method was then applied on different wines produced in the Emilia Romagna region. The investigation permitted to discriminate between red and white wines. Amino acids content is related to the winemaking process. Biogenic amines content in these wines does not represent a possible toxicological problem for human health. The results of the study of influence of technologies and wine composition demonstrated that pH of wines and amino acids content are the most important factors. Particularly wines with pH > 3,5 show higher concentration of biogenic amines than wines with lower pH. The enrichment of wines by nutrients also influences the content of some biogenic amines that are higher in wines added with amino acids precursors. In this study, amino acids and biogenic amines are not statistically affected by strain of lactic acid bacteria inoculated as a starter for malolactic fermentation. An evaluation of different clean-up (SPE-MycoSep; IACs and LLE) and determination methods (HPLC and ELISA) of ochratoxin A was carried out. The results obtained proved that the SPE clean-up are reliable at the same level while the LLE procedures shows lowest recovery. The ELISA method gave a lower determination and a low reproducibility than HPLC method.

Trasduzione del segnale e poliamine nell'apoptosi di cellule cardiache

Introduction: Apoptotic cell death of cardiomyocytes is involved in several cardiovascular diseases including ischemia, hypertrophy and heart failure, thus representing a potential therapeutic target. Apoptosis of cardiac cells can be induced experimentally by several stimuli including hypoxia, serum withdrawal or combination of both. Several lines of research suggest that neurohormonal mechanisms play a central role in the progression of heart failure. In particular, excessive activation of the sympathetic nervous system or the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system is known to have deleterious effects on the heart. Recent studies report that norepinephrine (NE), the primary transmitter of sympathetic nervous system, and aldosterone (ALD), which is actively produced in failing human heart, are able to induce apoptosis of rat cardiomyocytes. Polyamines are biogenic amines involved in many cellular processes, including apoptosis. Actually it appears that these molecules can act as promoting, modulating or protective agents in apoptosis depending on apoptotic stimulus and cellular model. We have studied the involvement of polyamines in the apoptosis of cardiac cells induced in a model of simulated ischemia and following treatment with NE or ALD. Methods: H9c2 cardiomyoblasts were exposed to a condition of simulated ischemia, consisting of hypoxia plus serum deprivation. Cardiomyocyte cultures were prepared from 1-3 day-old neonatal Wistar rat hearts. Polyamine depletion was obtained by culturing the cells in the presence of α-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO). Polyamines were separated and quantified in acidic cellular extracts by HPLC after derivatization with dansyl chloride. Caspase activity was measured by the cleavage of the fluorogenic peptide substrate. Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity was measured by estimation of the release of 14C-CO2 from 14C-ornithine. DNA fragmentation was visualized by the method of terminal transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling (TUNEL), and DNA laddering on agarose gel electophoresis. Cytochrome c was detected by immunoflorescent staining. Activation of signal transduction pathways was investigated by western blotting. Results: The results indicate that simulated ischemia, NE and ALD cause an early induction of the activity of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), the first enzyme in polyamine biosynthesis, followed by a later increase of caspase activity, a family of proteases that execute the death program and induce cell death. This effect was prevented in the presence of DFMO, an irreversible inhibitor of ODC, thus suggesting that polyamines are involved in the execution of the death program activated by these stimuli. In H9c2 cells DFMO inhibits several molecular events related to apoptosis that follow simulated ischemia, such as the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, down-regulation of Bcl-xL, and DNA fragmentation. The anti-apoptotic protein survivin is down-regulated after ALD or NE treatement and polyamine depletion obtained by DFMO partially opposes survivin decrease. Moreover, a study of key signal transduction pathways governing cell death and survival, revealed an involvement of AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) and AKT kinase, in the modulation by polyamines of the response of cardiomyocytes to NE. In fact polyamine depleted cells show an altered pattern of AMPK and AKT activation that may contrast apoptosis and appears to result from a differential effect on the specific phosphatases that dephosphorylate and switch off these signaling proteins. Conclusions: These results indicate that polyamines are involved in the execution of the death program activated in cardiac cells by heart failure-related stimuli, like ischemia, ALD and NE, and suggest that their apoptosis facilitating action is mediated by a network of specific phosphatases and kinases.

Ingegnerizzazione e design di nanoparticelle core-shell di magnetite/silice

In the past decade the study of superparamagnetic nanoparticles has been intensively developed for many biomedical applications such as magnetically assisted drug delivery, MRI contrast agents, cells separation and hyperthermia therapy. All of these applications require nanoparticles with high magnetization, equipped also with a suitable surface coating which has to be non-toxic and biocompatible. In this master thesis, the silica coating of commercially available magnetic nanoparticles was investigated. Silica is a versatile material with many intrinsic features, such as hydrophilicity, low toxicity, proper design and derivatization yields particularly stable colloids even in physiological conditions. The coating process was applied to commercial magnetite particles dispersed in an aqueous solution. The formation of silica coated magnetite nanoparticles was performed following two main strategies: the Stöber process, in which the silica coating of the nanoparticle was directly formed by hydrolysis and condensation of suitable precursor in water-alcoholic mixtures; and the reverse microemulsions method in which inverse micelles were used to confine the hydrolysis and condensation reactions that bring to the nanoparticles formation. Between these two methods, the reverse microemulsions one resulted the most versatile and reliable because of the high control level upon monodispersity, silica shell thickness and overall particle size. Moving from low to high concentration, within the microemulsion region a gradual shift from larger particles to smaller one was detected. By increasing the amount of silica precursor the silica shell can also be tuned. Fluorescent dyes have also been incorporated within the silica shell by linking with the silica matrix. The structure of studied nanoparticles was investigated by using transmission electron microscope (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). These techniques have been used to monitor the syntetic procedures and for the final characterization of silica coated and silica dye doped nanoparticles. Finally, field dependent magnetization measurements showed the magnetic properties of core-shell nanoparticles were preserved. Due to a very well defined structure that combines magnetic and luminescent properties together with the possibility of further functionalization, these multifunctional nanoparticles are potentially useful platforms in biomedical fields such as labeling and imaging.

Massenspektrometrische Isotopenverdünnungsanalyse (MSIVA) als Validierungsmethode für Bestimmungen von Methylquecksilber mittels GC/ICP-MS

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ist es gelungen, ein GC/ICP-MSIVA-Verfahren zur zuverlässigen und richtigen Bestimmung von Methylquecksilbergehalten (MeHg+) in aquatischen Systemen zu entwickeln. Unter Verwendung eines hergestellten Me201Hg+-Indikators konnte bei der Überprüfung der weltweit gängigen Probenaufbereitung mittels NaBEt4 zur Überführung von MeHg+ in MeEtHg gezeigt werden, daß während dieser Probenaufbereitung in Gegenwart von Halogeniden eine MeHg+-Speziesumwandlung zu Hg0 stattfinden kann. Es konnte mit Hilfe von Modellösungen erstmalig eindeutig nachgewiesen werden, daß die MeHg+-Speziesumwandlungen ihre Ursache nur im Zusammenwirken von vorliegenden Halogeniden mit dem verwendeten Derivatisierungsreagenz NaBEt4 haben. Ebenso wie in Modellösungen wurden auch MeHg+-Speziesumwandlungen in Realproben bei der Derivatisierung mit NaBEt4 überprüft. Die Proben, die bei der Derivatisierung mit NaBEt4 eine MeHg+-Umwandlung zeigten, wurden auch mit dem weltweit bisher wenig eingesetzten Reagenz NaBPr4 derivatisiert. Hier konnte bei keiner der Untersuchungen eine MeHg+-Umwandlung festgestellt werden. Des weiteren wurden MeHg+-Gehalte in Süßwasserproben unter Verwendung von NaBEt4 und NaBPr4 bestimmt. Die Ergebnisse hinsichtlich beider Derivatisierungsreagenzien stimmten sehr gut überein. Diese Resultate zeigten eindrucksvoll, daß Substanzverluste durch die Speziesumwandlung bei MeHg+-Bestimmungen mit MSIVA keine Rolle spielen, da die Umwandlung erst nach der Isotopenvermischung einsetzte. Mit dem entwickelten GC/ICP-MSIVA-Verfahrens wurde der MeHg+-Gehalt im Referenzmaterial CRM 463 analysiert, der sehr gut mit dem zertifizierten Wert übereinstimmte.

Konzeptionelle Entwicklung von Mikrokosmos-Experimenten zur Untersuchung der speziesspezifischen Transformationsprozesse des Quecksilbers mittels Isotopenverhältnisbestimmungen

Zur Untersuchung der speziesspezifischen Transformationsprozesse des Quecksilbers in der Umwelt wurden erstmalig Mikrokosmosexperimente unter Verwendung von isotopenangereicherten Verbindungen durchgeführt. Es wurden naturrelevante Bedingungen simuliert, um eine spätere Übertragbarkeit der Ergebnisse auf den biogeochemischen Kreislauf des Quecksilbers zu gewährleisten. Die aufgebauten Mikrokosmen bestanden aus Boden/Pflanzen/Luft-Kompartimenten. Der Boden der Mikrokosmen wurde mit isotopenangereicherten Quecksilberspezies dotiert. Durch die Verwendung von isotopenangereicherten Verbindungen, verbunden mit gleichzeitiger ICP/MS-Detektion, konnten auftretende Transformationsprozesse beobachtet werden. Die Messung der Quecksilberspezies erfolgte mittels GC-ICP/MS nach vorheriger Derivatisierung mit Natriumtetraethylborat und Anreicherung per 'purge and trap'.Die Massenspuren der einzelnen Quecksilberisotope wurden für alle Quecksilberspezies gemessen und daraus dann für jede Spezies die Isotopenverhältnisse gebildet. Bei einer Änderung des Isotopenverhältnisses kann von einer Speziestransformation ausgegangen werden.Aus den Mikrokosmosexperimenten, denen Methylquecksilber als angereicherte Isotopenverbindung zugegeben wurde, konnte gefolgert werden, dass Methylquecksilber im Boden zunächst zu anorganischem Quecksilber demethyliert wurde. Im Anschluss daran erfolgte eine Reduktion zu elementarem Quecksilber. Dieses gebildete elementare Quecksilber verflüchtigte sich nahezu vollständig (ca. 90-100%) vom Boden in die Atmosphäre.Bei der Zugabe von anorganischem Quecksilber als angereicherte Isotopenverbindung in den Boden wurde vorwiegend eine Reduktion zu elementarem Quecksilber beobachtet, das dann in die Atmosphäre emittiert. Es konnte aber auch eine geringe Methylierung (ca. 5%) zu Methylquecksilber beobachtet werden. Daraus kann gefolgert werden, dass die methylierten Quecksilberverbindungen eine wesentliche Rolle im natürlichen Kreislauf des Quecksilbers spielen.Parallel zu den Mikrokosmosexperimenten wurden Feldversuche in einem flussnahen Feuchtgebiet, aus dem auch der Boden für die Mikrokosmosexperimente entnommen worden war, durchgeführt. In den Feldversuchen wurden Quecksilberkonzentrationen und der Quecksilberfluss zwischen dem Boden und der Atmosphäre mit Hilfe von Flusskammerexperimenten bestimmt. Es konnten mit Hilfe von Mikrokosmen, die natürliche Verhältnisse simulieren sollten, und mit Hilfe verschieden angereicherter Isotopenspikes erstmals Speziestransformationen des Quecksilbers direkt beobachtet werden. Die GC-ICP/MS-Methode ermöglichte eine eindeutige Identifikation von Edukt und Produkt der jeweiligen Umwandlung. Allerdings wurde die Untersuchung eingeschränkt durch die irreversiblen biologischen Veränderungen in den eingesetzten Mikrokosmen nach über einer Woche und durch die Notwendigkeit, vergleichsweise hohe Konzentrationen der Spikes einzusetzen, um eine statistisch signifikante Auswertung der Veränderung der Isotopenverhältnisse zu erreichen. Somit sind Mikrokosmosexperimente nur eingeschränkt für Untersuchungen des Quecksilberverhaltens geeignet.Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ist es aber gelungen, die Mikrokosmenexperimente unter Verwendung von isotopenangereicherten Verbindungen und der GC-ICP/MS-Methode als leistungsstarkes Verfahren zur Beobachtung von Speziestransformationsprozessen des Quecksilbers zu etablieren.

Weiterentwicklung einer GC/AFD-Methode zur Bestimmung von Methylquecksilberverbindungen in der Umwelt und deren Anwendung in anthropogen beeinflussten und unbeeinflussten Regionen

Zusammenfassung Quecksilber kommt in der Natur in seinen vier umweltrelevanten Spezies Hg0, Hg2+, Me2Hg, MeHg+ vor. Die methylierten Spezies wurden dabei in der Vergangenheit aufgrund ihres relativ geringen Anteils am Gesamtquecksilber oft vernachlässigt. Me2Hg und MeHg+ spielen aber eine wichtige Rolle als intermediäre Transportspezies im Quecksilberkreislauf, und eine richtige Analytik dieser Verbindungen ist daher notwendig. Die GC/AFD-Methode (Gaschromatographie/Atomfluoreszenzdetektion) in Verbindung mit einem Purge&Trap-Probenaufgabesystem ermöglicht eine nachweisstarke Analytik dieser Verbindungen in Umweltproben. Dabei müssen die ionischen Quecksilberverbindungen MeHg+ und Hg2+ derivatisiert werden, um sie einer gaschromatographischen Trennung zugänglich zu machen.Das bestehende Verfahren wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit mit Hilfe einer alternativen Derivatisierungsmethode verbessert. Das optimierte Verfahren erlaubt auch eine Analyse von MeHg+-Gehalten in Proben mit hoher Chloridbelastung. Solche Proben konnten mit der herkömmlichen Ethylierung als Derivatisierungsmethode nicht analysiert werden, da während der Derivatisierung eine Umwandlung des MeHg+ zu Hg0 auftritt. Bei der Propylierung findet keine solche Transformation statt und sie ist daher eine hervorragende Ergänzung der bestehenden Methode.Die GC/AFD-Methode wurde zur Quecksilberspeziation in der Antarktis als Beispiel für ein anthropogen unbeeinflusstes Gebiet verwendet. Dabei konnten methylierte Quecksilberverbindungen im Meerwasser, in der Atmosphäre und erstmals im antarktischen Schnee nachgewiesen werden und somit die bedeutende Rolle der methylierten Quecksilberspezies am biogeochemischen Stoffkreislauf des Quecksilbers in dieser Region gezeigt werden. Vergleiche mit einer kontinentalen Region zeigten, dass dort MeHg+ und Me2Hg wesentlich weniger produziert bzw. schneller abgebaut werden.

Chemical analysis and reactivity of biomass pyrolysis products. Application to the development of carbon-neutral biofuels and chemicals

In this dissertation the pyrolytic conversion of biomass into chemicals and fuels was investigated from the analytical point of view. The study was focused on the liquid (bio-oil) and solid (char) fractions obtainable from biomass pyrolysis. The drawbacks of Py-GC-MS described so far were partially solved by coupling different analytical configurations (Py-GC-MS, Py-GC-MIP-AED and off-line Py-SPE and Py-SPME-GC-MS with derivatization procedures). The application of different techniques allowed a satisfactory comparative analysis of pyrolysis products of different biomass and a high throughput screening on effect of 33 catalysts on biomass pyrolysis. As the results of the screening showed, the most interesting catalysts were those containing copper (able to reduce the high molecular weight fraction of bio-oil without large yield decrease) and H-ZSM-5 (able to entirely convert the bio-oil into “gasoline like” aromatic products). In order to establish the noxious compounds content of the liquid product, a clean-up step was included in the Py-SPE procedure. This allowed to investigate pollutants (PAHs) generation from pyrolysis and catalytic pyrolysis of biomass. In fact, bio-oil from non-catalytic pyrolysis of biomass showed a moderate PAHs content, while the use of H-ZSM-5 catalyst for bio-oil up-grading determined an astonishing high production of PAHs (if compared to what observed in alkanes cracking), indicating an important concern in the substitution fossil fuel with bio-oil derived from biomass. Moreover, the analytical procedures developed in this thesis were directly applied for the detailed study of the most useful process scheme and up-grading route to chemical intermediates (anhydrosugars), transportation fuels or commodity chemicals (aromatic hydrocarbons). In the applied study, poplar and microalgae biomass were investigated and overall GHGs balance of pyrolysis of agricultural residues in Ravenna province was performed. A special attention was put on the comparison of the effect of bio-char different use (fuel or as soil conditioner) on the soil health and GHGs emissions.

Synthesis, characterization and chemical modification of a cationic polyelectrolyte poly(methylene amine)

Polyamine polymers have attracted attention due to their ability to demonstrate pH dependent cationic nature and presence of highly reactive pendant amino groups. These amino groups make them suitable for a host of applications through cross-linking and derivatization. As a result the end use application of a polyamine is largely driven by the number of amino groups and the way they are attached to the polymer backbone. Thus, this piece of work describes the synthesis and investigation of properties of a novel aliphatic polyamine, poly(methylene amine); that carries maximum number of amino group on its backbone. The target polymer, poly(methylene amine); was synthesized via two major steps viz.1.synthesis of precursor polymers of poly(methylene amine) and 2. Hydrolysis of the precursor polymers to obtain poly(methylene amine). The precursor polymers poly (1,3-diacetylimidazole-2-one)(6) and poly(1,3-diformyldihydroimidazol-2-one)(7) were synthesized via radical polymerization of their respective monomers. The monomers were polymerized in bulk as well as in solution at different reaction conditions. The maximum molecular weights were achieved by polymerizing the monomers in bulk (Mn = 6.5 x 104 g/mol and Mw = 2.13 x 105 g/mol) of 6. The precursor polymers were hydrolyzed under strong reaction conditions in ethanol in presence of NaOH, LiCl at 170°C to yield poly(methylene amine). The process of hydrolysis was monitored by IR spectroscopy. The solution properties of poly(methylene amine) and its hydrochloride were investigated by viscosimetry and light scattering. The reduced viscosity of poly (methylene amine) hydrochloride as a function of polymer concentration demonstrated a behavior typical of cationic polyelectrolyte. With decrease in polymer concentration the reduced viscosity of poly(methylene amine) hydrochloride increased gradually. The dynamic light scattering studies also revealed behaviors of a polyelectrolyte. Poly(methylene amine) was reacted with electrophiles to yield novel materials. While the attachment of alkyl group onto the nitrogen would increase nucleophilicity, it would also impose steric hindrance. As a result the degree of substitution on poly(methylene amine) would be governed by both the factors. Therefore, few model reactions with electrophiles were performed on polvinylamine under similar reaction conditions in order to make a comparative evaluation. It was found that under similar reaction conditions the degree of substitution was higher in case of polyvinylamine in comparison with poly (methylene amine).This shows that the steric hindrance outweighs nucleophilicity while deciding degree of substitution of electrophiles on poly(methylene amine). The modification was further extended to its use as an initiator for ring opening polymerization of benzyloxy protected N-carboxyanhydride of z-Lysine. The resulting polymer had an interesting brush like architecture. The solid state morphology of this polymer was investigated by SAXS. The 2D-WAXS diffractograms revealed hexagonal morphology of peptide segments without formation of alpha helices.

Dye doped, core / shell silica nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, & biotechnological applications

The aim of this thesis was to design, synthesize and develop a nanoparticle based system to be used as a chemosensor or as a label in bioanalytical applications. A versatile fluorescent functionalizable nanoarchitecture has been effectively produced based on the hydrolysis and condensation of TEOS in direct micelles of Pluronic® F 127, obtaining highly monodisperse silica - core / PEG - shell nanoparticles with a diameter of about 20 nm. Surface functionalized nanoparticles have been obtained in a one-pot procedure by chemical modification of the hydroxyl terminal groups of the surfactant. To make them fluorescent, a whole library of triethoxysilane fluorophores (mainly BODIPY based), encompassing the whole visible spectrum has been synthesized: this derivatization allows a high degree of doping, but the close proximity of the molecules inside the silica matrix leads to the development of self - quenching processes at high doping levels, with the concomitant fall of the fluorescence signal intensity. In order to bypass this parasite phenomenon, multichromophoric systems have been prepared, where highly efficient FRET processes occur, showing that this energy pathway is faster than self - quenching, recovering the fluorescence signal. The FRET efficiency remains very high even four dye nanoparticles, increasing the pseudo Stokes shift of the system, attractive feature for multiplexing analysis. These optimized nanoparticles have been successfully exploited in molecular imaging applications such as in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo imaging, proving themselves superior to conventional molecular fluorophores as signaling units.

New methods for the functionalization of metathesis polymers

Two general strategies for the functionalization of metathesis polymers are presented in this dissertation. Introducing Sacrificial Synthesis, many of the limitations of ruthenium-catalyzed ROMP have been overcome. Here, the living ROMP polymer to be functionalized was turned into a diblock copolymer by polymerizing dioxepine monomers onto the desired first polymer block. The second block was then later removed to leave “half-a-dioxepin”, i.e. exactly one hydroxyl group, at the chain-end. The efficiency of Sacrificial Synthesis is also studied. Thiol groups were also placed by a sacrificial strategy based on cyclic thioacetals. 2-Phenyl-1,3-dithiepin could be polymerized and subsequently cleaved by hydrogenation with Raney-Nickel. The presence of thiol groups on the chain end has been proven by chemical means (derivatization) and by coating gold-nanoparticles. The second strategy, vinyl lactone quenchingv is a termination reaction based on vinyl esters. After a metathesis step, an inactive Fischer-type carbene is formed. Such acyl carbenes are unstable and self-decompose to set an inactive ruthenium complex and the functional group free without changing the reaction conditions. The two compounds vinylene carbonate and 3H-furanone gave rise to the placement of aldehydes and carboxylic acids at the polymer chain ends without the necessity to perform any deprotection steps after the functionalization. The development of those two functionalization methods led to several applications. By reacting hydroxyl-functionalized ROMP-polymers with norbornene acid, macromonomers were formed which were subsequently polymerized to the respective graft-copolymers. Also, the derivatization of the same functionalized polymers with propargylic acid gave rise to alkyne-functionalized polymers which were conjugated with azides. Furthermore, “ugly stars”, i.e. long-chain branched structures were synthesized by polycondensation of ABn-type macromonomers and telechelic polymers were accessed combining the described functionalization techniques.

Bioconjugation and synthetic approach towards enantioenriched gem-difluoromethylene compounds through carbenium ions

Bioconjugation of peptides and asymmetric synthesis of gem-difluoromethylene compounds are areas of the modern organic chemistry for which mild and selective methods continue to be developed. This thesis reports new methodologies for these two areas based on the use of stabilized carbenium ions. The reaction that makes the bioconjugation of peptides possible takes place via the direct nucleophilic substitution of alcohols and is driven by the spontaneous formation of stabilized carbenium ions in water. By reacting with the thiol group of cysteine in very mild conditions and with a high selectivity, these carbenium ions allow the site-specific ligation of polypeptides containing cysteine and their covalent derivatization with functionalized probes. The ligation of the indole ring of tryptophan, an emerging target in bioconjugation, is also shown and takes place in the same conditions. The second area investigated is the challenging access to optically active gem-difluoromethylene compounds. We describe a methodology relying on the synthesis of enantioenriched 1,3-benzodithioles intermediates that are shown to be precursors of the corresponding gem-difluoromethylene analogues by oxidative desulfurization-fluorination. This synthesis takes advantage of the highly enantioselective organocatalytic α-alkylation of aldehydes with the benzodithiolylium ion and of the wide possibilities of synthetic transformations offered by the 1,3-benzodithiole group. This approach allows the asymmetric access to complex gem-difluoromethylene compounds through a late-stage fluorination step, thus avoiding the use of fluorinated building blocks.

Nachweis und Charakterisierung der Ketocarotinoidakkumulation in Zygosporen des Modellorganismus Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Ketocarotinoide sind in den Dauerstadien vieler Grünalgen anzutreffen und aufgrund ihres hohen antioxidativen Potentials vermutlich von großer Bedeutung für deren Überleben unter ungünstigen Umweltbedingungen. Daneben ist die Aufnahme von Ketocarotinoiden im Zuge der Nahrungskette für verschiedene Tiere lebensnotwendig. Trotz zahlreicher Untersuchungen des Biosynthesewegs der Ketocarotinoide, vorwiegend in der Grünalge Haematococcus pluvialis, sind viele grundlegende Aspekte der Synthese nicht verstanden. Dazu zählt neben dem genauen Reaktionsmechanismus des ketolierenden Enzyms ß-Carotin-Ketolase (BKT) vor allem der noch nicht aufgeklärte Zusammenhang zwischen Lipidsynthese und Ketocarotinoidakkumulation. Nach der Entdeckung eines zur BKT aus H. pluvialis homologen Gens in einer EST-Datenbank des Modellorganismus Chlamydomonas reinhardtii wurden im Rahmen der vorliegenden Forschungsarbeit die als orange-rot beschrieben Zygosporen von C. reinhardtii als mögliches ketocarotinoidhaltiges Zellstadium untersucht. Dabei wurden für C. reinhardtii erstmals Ketocarotinoide in Konzentrationen bis zu einem Femtomol pro Zelle nachgewiesen und mittels HPLC-Analytik, chemischer Derivatisierung und Massenspektrometrie zweifelsfrei identifiziert. Es wurden, in aufsteigender Quantität, drei Ketocarotinoide detektiert: Canthaxanthin, Astaxanthin und 4-Ketolutein. Letzteres wurde bisher selten in anderen ketocarotinoidakkumulierenden Organismen beschrieben und stellt, im Gegensatz zu den vom ß-Carotin abgeleiteten Pigmenten Astaxanthin und Canthaxanthin, ein Pigment des α-Carotin-Zweiges dar. Astaxanthin und 4-Ketolutein wurden vor allem in Form von Pigment-Fettsäureestern nachgewiesen. Mit Hilfe von Paarungsansätzen mit der lor1-Mutante, die keine α-Carotinoide synthetisieren kann, und Vergleichen mit Ketocarotinoiden aus H. pluvialis konnte gezeigt werden, dass 4 Ketolutein nur als Monoacylester in der Alge vorliegt, während Astaxanthin sowohl als Monoacyl- wie auch als Diacylester anzutreffen ist. Ketocarotinoide wurden innerhalb der ersten 14 Tage der Zygotenreife gebildet. Transmissionselektronenmikroskopische Aufnahmen der Zygoten dokumentierten, dass damit ein starker Umbau der Zelle einherging, der sich vor allem in der Reduktion des Chloroplasten und der Bildung von Lipidtröpfchen darstellte. Letztere nahmen bei reifen Zygosporen den größten Teil des Zelllumens ein und wurden mittels dünnschichtchromatografischer Analysen als Neutralfette identifiziert. Der sinkende Zellgehalt an Carotinoiden im Zuge der Zygosporenreifung und Inhibitorexperimente an reifenden Zygoten mittels Norflurazon zeigten, dass für die Ketocarotinoidakkumulation keine Neusynthese von Carotinoiden nötig ist und lassen die Hypothese zu, dass C. reinhardtii die im Zuge der Chloroplastenreduktion freigesetzten Photosynthese-Carotinoide als Substrate für die Ketocarotinoidsynthese verwendet. Physiologische Bedeutung könnte den Ketocarotinoiden vor allem beim Schutz der Speicherlipide vor Peroxidation durch reaktive Sauerstoffspezies zukommen. Diese Reservestoffe stellen die Energieversorgung während des Auskeimens der Zellen sicher. Durch den im Rahmen der vorliegenden Forschungsarbeit dokumentierten Nachweis der Ketocarotinoidakkumulation in C. reinhardtii können die Ketocarotinoidsynthese und vor allem der Zusammenhang von Lipid- und Ketocarotinoidakkumulation zukünftig mit Hilfe der für diesen Modellorganismus vorliegenden umfangreichen molekulargenetischen Methoden detailliert untersucht werden.

Liquid crystalline cellulose derivatives for mirrorless lasing

In this thesis cholesteric films made of liquid crystalline cellulose derivatives with improved optical properties were prepared. The choice of the solvent, hydrogen bond influencing additives, the synthetic realization of a very high degree of substitution on the cellulosic polymer and the use of mechanical stirring at the upper concentration limit of the liquid crystalline range were the basis for an improved alignment of the applied cellulose tricarbamates. In combination with a tuned substrate treatment and film preparation method, cholesteric films were obtained, with optical properties that were theoretically predicted and only known from low molecular weight liquid crystals so far. Subsequent polymerization allowed a permanent fixing of the alignment and the fabrication of free standing and insensitive films.rnThe incorporation of inorganic nanorods into the cholesteric host material was mediated with tailored block copolymers, available via controlled radical polymerization methods. In addition to the shape match between the rodlike mesogens of the host and the nanorods it was possible to increase the miscibility of both materials. Nevertheless, the size of the nanorods, in comparison to the mesogens, in these densely packed liquid crystalline phases as well as their long equilibration times were the reasons for phase separation. Nanorods are, in principle, valuable substitutes for organics, but their utilization in cellulosic CLC was not to be combined with a high quality alignment of the cholesteric structure.rnA swelling process of polymerized films in a dye solution or dissolving dyes in non-polymerized CLC was used for incorporation of the organic chromophores. With the first method the CLC could be aligned and polymerized without any disturbance due to dye molecules. The optical properties of dye and CLC were matched, with regard to mirrorless lasing devices. The dye was optically excited and laser emission supported by the cholesteric cavity was obtained. The polarization and wavelength of the emitted radiation as well as its bandwidth, the obtained interference pattern and threshold behavior of the emission proofed the feedback mechanism that was not believed to be realizable in liquid crystalline polymers. rnUtilization of a microfluidic co-flow injection device enabled us to transfer the properties of cellulosic CLC from the planar film shape to spherical micrometer sized particles. The pure material yielded particles with distorted mesogen alignment similar to films prepared by capillary flow. Dilution of the CLC with a solvent that migrated into the carrier phase during particle preparation provided the basis for particles with well ordered areas. rnAlthough cellulose derivatives were known for their liquid crystalline behavior for decades and synthesized in mass production, their application as feedback material was affected by bad optical properties. In comparison to low molar mass compounds, the low degree of order in the CLC phase was the cause. With the improved material, defined lasing emission was shown and characterized. Derivatives of cellulose are desirable materials, because, as a renewable resource, they are available in large amounts for a low price and need only simple derivatization reactions. The fabrication of CLC films with tunable lasing emission, for which this thesis can provide a starting point, is in good agreement with today's requirements of modern technology and its miniaturization.rn