黄海近岸海洋趋磁细菌的多样性研究

海洋趋磁细菌在黄海、东海的近岸海域沉积物中分布广泛，形态上以球菌为主，部分地区有杆菌、螺旋菌。在青岛汇泉湾发现大量的海洋趋磁细菌，趋磁球菌占优势，最大丰度可达105 cells/cm3。 透射电镜观察潮间带趋磁细菌以球菌或卵球菌占绝对优势；潮下带菌体形态多样，有球形或卵球形、长短杆状、弧状和螺旋状，其中球形或卵球形趋磁细菌占优势。电镜观察还发现磁小体的排列方式多样化，大多数呈链状排列，有单链、双链及多链，还有的呈环状或者成簇排列。磁小体的形态也多种多样，有正方体、棱柱体、立方八面体、子弹头状、片状和齿状。 PCR-RFLP分析RT收集潮间带得到的三个菌株同属于α-变形菌亚纲中的未培养的趋磁球菌，三者之间相似性都在98%以上，可能都属于同一个属。潮下带RT收集，测序分析得到10个菌株。发现9个属于α-变形菌亚纲，1个属于γ-变形菌亚纲，共有8个不同的属，优势种是MRT-81和MRT-82。目前尚未获得这些细菌的纯培养。 结合电镜观察的结果发现，潮间带形态单一，属于同一个属；潮下带形态多样，属于8个不同的属。电镜结果跟RFLP的结果一致。结合区域特点我们分析潮间带水深大约0.5-1 m，在大潮最低潮时可能暴露于空气中，且受潮汐的影响，物化环境变化较大。潮下带水深常年>2 m，物化环境比较稳定。这可能是造成两个区域多样性差别的主要原因。 我们得到的所有的序列与未培养和已纯培养的海洋趋磁球菌的16S rDNA相似性都不高于94%，两优势菌群与纯培养的MC-1相似性都不高于88%，可能为新发现的海洋趋磁细菌资源。

BACE1 Polymorphisms Do Not Influence Platelet Membrane β-secretase Activity or Genetic Susceptibility for Alzheimer’s Disease in the Northern Irish Population

ß-Site amyloid precursor protein (APP)-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is a biological and positional candidate gene for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). BACE1 is a protease that catalyses APP cleavage at the ß-secretase site. We evaluated all common and putatively functional polymorphisms in the genomic region encompassing BACE1 for an association with AD, and for functional effects on platelet ß-secretase activity. Tag SNPs (n = 10) derived from phase II of the International HapMap Project, and a nonsynonymous variant, were successfully genotyped in 901 Caucasian individuals from Northern Ireland using Sequenom iPLEX and TaqMan technologies. APOE genotyping was performed by PCR-RFLP. Platelet membrane ß-secretase activity was assayed in a subset of individuals (n = 311). Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium was observed for all variants. Evidence for an association with AD was observed with multi-marker haplotype analyses (P = 0.01), and with rs676134 when stratified for APOE genotype (P = 0.02), however adjusting for multiple testing negated the evidence for association of this variant with AD. ?2 analysis of genotype and allele frequencies in cases versus controls for individual SNPs revealed no evidence for association (5% level). No genetic factors were observed that significantly influenced platelet membrane ß-secretase activity. We have selected an appropriate subset of variants suitable for comprehensive genetic investigation of the BACE1 gene. Our results suggest that common BACE1 polymorphisms and putatively functional variants have no significant influence on genetic susceptibility to AD, or platelet ß-secretase activity, in this Caucasian Northern Irish population.

Phylogeographic structure of brown trout (Salmo trutta) in Britain and Ireland: glacial refugia, post-glacial colonisation, and origins of sympatric populations

The phylogeographical structure of brown trout Salmo trutta in Britain and Ireland was studied using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of four mitochondrial DNA segments (16S/ND1, ND5/6, COXIII/ND5 and ND5/12S). Analysis of 3636 individuals from 83 sites-morphotypes revealed a total of 25 haplotypes. These haplotypes were nested in seven two-step clades. Although there was a clear geographical patterning to the occurrence of derived clades, admixture among ancestral clades was extensive throughout the studied area. A relevant feature of the data was that some populations contained mixtures of highly divergent clades. This type II phylogeographic pattern is uncommon in nature. Clade intermixing is likely to have taken place during earlier interglacials as well as since the Last Glacial Maximum. The anadromous life history of many S. trutta populations has probably also contributed to clade mixing. Based on the data presented here and published data, postglacial colonization of Britain and Ireland most likely involved S. trutta from at least five potential glacial refuges. Probable locations for such refugia were: south of England-western France, east of the Baltic Sea, western Ireland, Celtic Sea and North Sea. Ferox S. trutta, as defined by their longevity, late maturation and piscivory, exhibited a strong association with a particular clade indicating that they share a common ancestor. Current evidence indicates that the Lough Melvin gillaroo S. trutta and sonaghen S. trutta sympatric types diverged prior to colonization of Lough Melvin and, although limited gene flow has occurred since secondary contact, they have remained largely reproductively isolated due to inlet and outlet river spawning segregation. Gillaroo S. trutta may reflect descendents of a previously more widespread lineage that has declined due to habitat alterations particularly affecting outlet rivers. The mosaic-like distribution of mtDNA lineages means that conservation prioritization in Britain and Ireland should be based on the biological characteristics of local populations rather than solely on evolutionary lineages.

Common cancer stem cell gene variants predict colon cancer recurrence

PURPOSE: Recent evidence suggests that cancer stem cells (CSC) are responsible for key elements of colon cancer progression and recurrence. Germline variants in CSC genes may result in altered gene function and/or activity, thereby causing interindividual differences in a patient's tumor recurrence capacity and chemoresistance. We investigated germline polymorphisms in a comprehensive panel of CSC genes to predict time to tumor recurrence (TTR) in patients with stage III and high-risk stage II colon cancer.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A total of 234 patients treated with 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy at the University of Southern California were included in this study. Whole blood samples were analyzed for germline polymorphisms in genes that have been previously associated with colon CSC (CD44, Prominin-1, DPP4, EpCAM, ALCAM, Msi-1, ITGB1, CD24, LGR5, and ALDH1A1) by PCR-RFLP or direct DNA-sequencing.

RESULTS: The minor alleles of CD44 rs8193 C>T, ALCAM rs1157 G>A, and LGR5 rs17109924 T>C were significantly associated with increased TTR (9.4 vs. 5.4 years; HR, 0.51; 95% CI: 0.35-0.93; P = 0.022; 11.3 vs. 5.7 years; HR, 0.56; 95% CI: 0.33-0.94; P = 0.024, and 10.7 vs. 5.7 years; HR, 0.33; 95% CI: 0.12-0.90; P = 0.023, respectively) and remained significant in the multivariate analysis stratified by ethnicity. In recursive partitioning, a specific gene variant profile including LGR5 rs17109924, CD44 rs8193, and ALDH1A1 rs1342024 represented a high-risk subgroup with a median TTR of 1.7 years (HR, 6.71, 95% CI: 2.71-16.63, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION: This is the first study identifying common germline variants in colon CSC genes as independent prognostic markers for stage III and high-risk stage II colon cancer patients.

Pharmacogenetic angiogenesis profiling for first-line Bevacizumab plus oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer

PURPOSE: There is substantial germline genetic variability within angiogenesis pathway genes, thereby causing interindividual differences in angiogenic capacity and resistance to antiangiogenesis therapy. We investigated germline polymorphisms in genes involved in VEGF-dependent and -independent angiogenesis pathways to predict clinical outcome and tumor response in metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) patients treated with bevacizumab and oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A total of 132 patients treated with first-line bevacizumab and FOLFOX or XELOX were included in this study. Genomic DNA was isolated from whole-blood samples by PCR-RFLP or direct DNA sequencing. The endpoints of the study were progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and response rate (RR).

RESULTS: The minor alleles of EGF rs444903 A>G and IGF-1 rs6220 A>G were associated with increased OS and remained significant in multivariate Cox regression analysis (HR: 0.52; 95% CI: 0.31-0.87; adjusted P = 0.012 and HR: 0.60; 95% CI: 0.36-0.99; adjusted P = 0.046, respectively). The minor allele of HIF1α rs11549465 C>T was significantly associated with increased PFS but lost its significance in multivariate analysis. CXCR1 rs2234671 G>C, CXCR2 rs2230054 T>C, EGFR rs2227983 G>A, and VEGFR-2 rs2305948 C>T predicted tumor response, with CXCR1 rs2234671 G>C remaining significant in multiple testing (P(act) = 0.003).

CONCLUSION: In this study, we identified common germline variants in VEGF-dependent and -independent angiogenesis genes predicting clinical outcome and tumor response in patients with mCRC receiving first-line bevacizumab and oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy.

EGF61 polymorphism predicts complete pathologic response to cetuximab-based chemoradiation independent of KRAS status in locally advanced rectal cancer patients

BACKGROUND: Cetuximab has shown significant clinical activity in metastatic colon cancer. However, cetuximab-containing neoadjuvant chemoradiation has not been shown to improve tumor response in locally advanced rectal cancer patients in recent phase I/II trials. We evaluated functional germline polymorphisms of genes involved in epidermal growth factor receptor pathway, angiogenesis, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, DNA repair, and drug metabolism, for their potential role as molecular predictors for clinical outcome in locally advanced rectal cancer patients treated with preoperative cetuximab-based chemoradiation.

METHODS: 130 patients (74 men and 56 women) with locally advanced rectal cancer (4 with stage II, 109 with stage III, and 15 with stage IV, 2 unknown) who were enrolled in phase I/II clinical trials treated with cetuximab-based chemoradiation in European cancer centers were included. Genomic DNA was extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor samples and genotyping was done by using PCR-RFLP assays. Fisher's exact test was used to examine associations between polymorphisms and complete pathologic response (pCR) that was determined by a modified Dworak classification system (grade III vs. grade IV: complete response).

RESULTS: Patients with the epidermal growth factor (EGF) 61 G/G genotype had pCR of 45% (5/11), compared with 21% (11/53) in patients heterozygous, and 2% (1/54) in patients homozygous for the A/A allele (P < 0.001). In addition, this association between EGF 61 G allele and pCR remained significant (P = 0.019) in the 59 patients with wild-type KRAS.

CONCLUSION: This study suggested EGF A+61G polymorphism to be a predictive marker for pCR, independent of KRAS mutation status, to cetuximab-based neoadjuvant chemoradiation of patients with locally advanced rectal cancer.

Infecção de mycobacterium bovis em células fagocíticas: estratégia aplicada ao diagnóstico da tuberculose bovina

Neste trabalho foram estudadas as interacções entre Mycobacterium bovis e células hospedeiras, na perspectiva de aplicar os conhecimentos resultantes desse estudo ao melhoramento do diagnóstico da tuberculose bovina. Foi estudada a dinâmica da infecção de células fagocíticas com estirpes de M. bovis, com ênfase para a invasão e multiplicação intracelular das micobactérias. Avaliações efectuadas por citometria de fluxo, microscopia de fluorescência e contagem de colónias demonstraram que as micobactérias invadiram e replicaram em todos os modelos celulares, sendo que as células epiteliais de pulmão de bovino foram as mais permissivas ao seu crescimento. Foi nas células macrofágicas J774 e THP-1 que se verificaram as maiores concentrações micobacterianas, pelo que foram utilizadas para a detecção e identificação de M. bovis por um método molecular. A optimização da extracção de DNA, por um processo mecânico, e o desenvolvimento do método de PCR-RFLP baseado no gene gyrB, com controlo interno, permitiram a identificação de M. bovis. A sensibilidade deste método foi de 100% quando aplicado a estirpes isoladas e apenas de 40% quando utilizado directamente em amostras de macerados de tecidos de bovinos com tuberculose. Uma pré-incubação (3 dias) das amostras nas culturas celulares contribuiu para melhorar significativamente a sensibilidade (77%) do PCR-RFLP gyrB. A cultura celular, como matriz a ser utilizada para aumentar a quantidade de M. bovis presente em amostras biológicas, revela-se um método promissor para o diagnóstico laboratorial rápido, específico e sensível da tuberculose bovina. ### - Summary - Interactions between Mycobacterium bovis and host cells were studied with the purpose to apply the outcome knowledge in the improvement of bovine tuberculosis diagnosis. The dynamic of infection of four cell models with three strains of M. bovis was evaluated, with emphasis given to the invasion and intracellular multiplication of mycobacteria. Assessments by flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy and colony counting showed that every cell models permitted the replication of mycobacteria, although bovine lung epithelial cells had been the most permissive one. The highest mycobacteria) load was found, however, in J774 and THP-1 macrophages, and hence these cells were used for the optimization of a molecular method for detection and identification of M. bovis. The optimisation of a DNA extraction step, by a mechanical process, and the development of PCR-RFLP based on gyrB gene, with an internal control, allowed the identification of M. bovis. The sensitivity of this method was 100% when applied to isolated strains and only 40% when directly used on samples of macerated of tissues from cattle with tuberculosis. Assays in which a pre-incubation step (three days) of biological samples in cell cultures was introduced significantly improved the sensitivity (77%) of the gyrB PCR-RFLP. Cell cultures as a support for growth and rapid isolation of M. bovis is a promising method for the specific, sensitive and rapid laboratorial diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis.

Controlo e análise do processo de produção de aguardente de medronho da Serra do Caldeirão

Dissertação de mest., Tecnologia dos Alimentos, Instituto Superior de Engenharia, Univ. do Algarve, 2010

Vitivirus presentes em castas portuguesas de Vitis vinifera: caraterização molecular e diagnóstico

Dissertação de mestrado, Biologia Molecular e Microbiana, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, 2015

Pharmacogenetic analysis of the pregnane x receptor in breast cancer. Case-control study

Dissertação de Mestrado, Mestrado em Qualidade em Análises, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, 2015

Lymnaea truncatula em Portugal: contribuição para o estudo da bioecologia e da variação genética

Lymnaea truncatula é um gastrópode de água doce com importância em medicina por ser hospedeiro intermediário do tremátode parasita Fasciola hepatica. É o único hospedeiro intermediário desta espécie encontrado até agora em Portugal. A fasciolose é responsável por perdas de produtividade em gado. Nos humanos, é uma parasitose emergente com relevo em saúde pública em várias regiões do globo. Portugal é o segundo país europeu com maior prevalência. L. truncatula é de difícil controlo por ser anfíbia e ter boa capacidade de sobrevivência e adaptação. A eficácia dos programas de controlo e monitorização depende da correcta identificação das espécies de hospedeiros intermediários, dado que nem todas as espécies apresentam a mesma sensibilidade à infecção por F. hepatica. A morfologia da concha e a anatomia dos órgãos são insuficientes na identificação das espécies, sendo necessário usar técnicas de biologia molecular. Os objectivos deste estudo foram: estudar a distribuição, a variação da densidade populacional ao longo do ano, a diversidade genética, os habitats e a influência de parâmetros físicos, químicos e biológicos, na densidade populacional de L. truncatula em cinco distritos portugueses (Coimbra, Évora, Leiria, Lisboa e Funchal). Realizaram-se inquéritos malacológicos bimestrais durante 2 anos, entre Janeiro de 2006 e Dezembro de 2007 em Portugal continental e dois (Julho e Novembro de 2009) na ilha da Madeira. No continente, encontrou-se L. truncatula em: ribeiros temporários, com pouca vegetação, substrato de argila e matéria em decomposição e com água límpida, incolor e inodora, e com concentração de cálcio e de sulfatos até 50 mg/l e 267mg/l, respectivamente. A presença de outras espécies de moluscos, como Planorbarius metidjensis, Lymnaea peregra e da subclasse Prosobronchiata, assim como concentrações elevadas de nitratos, estão associados a uma menor densidade populacional. Na ilha da Madeira, os habitats foram predominantemente: escorrimentos de encosta, permanentes, com fraca exposição solar, pouca vegetação, substrato de rocha, argila e matéria em decomposição e com água límpida, incolor e inodora, acima dos 14,4ºC. A densidade populacional diminui com o aumento dos valores de nitratos e aumenta com a concentração de cálcio na água. As fezes de animais presentes junto às colecções de água não apresentaram ovos de F. hepatica. Foi encontrado um exemplar de F. hepatica no fígado de um gamo da Tapada Nacional de Mafra (distrito de Lisboa)Estudou-se a diversidade genética de L. truncatula através de RAPD-PCR e sequenciação do gene ribossomal 18S e da região ITS-2 (este também por PCR-RFLP). Identificou-se pela primeira vez em Portugal continental e na ilha da Madeira uma espécie, geneticamente diferente mas morfologicamente muito semelhante a L. truncatula – Lymnaea schirazensis. Na ilha da Madeira, foi detectado um haplotipo distinto do presente no continente. O marcador de RAPD - OPA2 e PCR-RFLP com HpaII, são bons marcadores para distinção entre L. truncatula e L. schirazensis. Adicionalmente, detectou-se pela primeira vez na ilha da Madeira L. (Pseudosuccinea) columella, conhecido hospedeiro intermediário de F. hepatica. Este estudo permitiu melhorar o conhecimento sobre hospedeiros intermediários de F. hepatica em Portugal, o que poderá melhorar o controlo e monitorização da fasciolose.

Étude de la diversité génétique d’isolats québécois de Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae provenant d’infections simples ou mixtes et caractérisation de leur sensibilité aux antimicrobiens

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae est l’agent causal de la pneumonie enzootique. On le retrouve dans plusieurs élevages de porcs à travers le monde. Même si ce micro-organisme est présent dans plusieurs troupeaux canadiens, peu d’informations sont présentement disponibles sur les isolats québécois. Un total de 160 poumons de porcs possédant des lésions de pneumonie ont été récupérés à l’abattoir, mis en culture et testés par PCR pour M. hyopneumoniae et Mycoplasma hyorhinis. D’autres pathogènes bactériens communs du porc et les virus du syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin (VSRRP), de l’influenza et le circovirus porcin de type 2 (CVP2) ont été également testés. Quatre-vingt-dix pourcent des échantillons étaient positifs pour M. hyopneumoniae et 5.6% l’étaient seulement pour M. hyorhinis. Dans ces échantillons positifs pour M. hyopneumoniae, la concentration de ce mycoplasme variait de 1.17 x 105 à 3.37 x 109 génomes/mL. Vingt-cinq poumons positifs en culture ou par PCR en temps réel pour M. hyopneumoniae ont été sélectionnés, parmi ceux-ci 10 étaient en coinfection avec Pasteurella multocida, 12 avec Streptococcus suis, 9 avec CVP2 et 2 avec le VSRRP. Les analyses des nombres variables de répétitions en tandem à de multiples loci (MLVA) et PCR-polymorphisme de longueur de fragments de restriction (PCR-RFLP) de M. hyopneumoniae ont démontré une forte diversité des isolats de terrain. Par contre, il semble y avoir plus d’homogénéité à l’intérieur d’un même élevage. L’analyse MLVA a également démontré que près de la moitié des isolats possédaient moins de 55% d’homologie avec les souches vaccinales et de référence utilisées dans la présente étude. L’absence d’amplification du locus 1 de M. hyopneumoniae en MLVA a été significativement associée à une baisse de la concentration de bactérie et de la sévérité des lésions. Pour tous les isolats de M. hyopneumoniae, des concentrations minimales inhibitrices (CMI) de faibles à intermédiaires ont été obtenues envers tous les antimicrobiens testés. Les isolats possédant des CMI intermédiaires envers les tétracyclines, les macrolides et les lincosamides ont été testés pour la présence des gènes de résistance tetM, ermB et pour des mutations ponctuelles dans les gènes des protéines L4, L22 et de l’ARNr 23S. Aucun de ces gènes n’a été détecté mais la mutation ponctuelle G2057A a été identifiée. Cette mutation est responsable de la résistance intrinsèque de M. hyopneumoniae face aux macrolides à 14 carbones. Ces résultats indiquent qu’il ne semble pas y avoir de résistance acquise aux antimicrobiens parmi ces isolats. En conclusion, cette recherche a permis d’obtenir de nouvelles données scientifiques sur les isolats québécois de M. hyopneumoniae.

Genetic diversity of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae isolates of abattoir pigs.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, the causative agent of porcine enzootic pneumonia, is present in swine herds worldwide. However, there is little information on strains infecting herds in Canada. A total of 160 swine lungs with lesions suggestive of enzootic pneumonia originating from 48 different farms were recovered from two slaughterhouses and submitted for gross pathology. The pneumonic lesion scores ranged from 2% to 84%. Eighty nine percent of the lungs (143/160) were positive for M. hyopneumoniae by real-time PCR whereas 10% (16/160) and 8.8% (14/160) were positive by PCR for M. hyorhinis and M. flocculare, respectively. By culture, only 6% of the samples were positive for M. hyopneumoniae (10/160). Among the selected M. hyopneumoniae-positive lungs (n = 25), 9 lungs were co-infected with M. hyorhinis, 9 lungs with PCV2, 2 lungs with PRRSV, 12 lungs with S. suis and 10 lungs with P. multocida. MLVA and PCR-RFLP clustering of M. hyopneumoniae revealed that analyzed strains were distributed among three and five clusters respectively, regardless of severity of lesions, indicating that no cluster is associated with virulence. However, strains missing a specific MLVA locus showed significantly less severe lesions and lower numbers of bacteria. MLVA and PCR-RFLP analyses also showed a high diversity among field isolates of M. hyopneumoniae with a greater homogeneity within the same herd. Almost half of the field isolates presented less than 55% homology with selected vaccine and reference strains.

Estudio de asociación del polimorfismo -866 G/A del gen UCP2 con obesidad en una población de Valledupar

La obesidad es una enfermedad multifactorial que se relaciona con estilos de vida y factores medioambientales y genéticos. Uno de los genes candidatos de la obesidad es el UCP2. Su polimorfismo -866G/A se ha asociado con obesidad en algunas poblaciones. Sin embargo, se han reportado resultados contradictorios alrededor del mundo, lo cual indica la necesidad de nuevas investigaciones al respecto. Objetivo: Analizar el polimorfismo -866G/A del gen UCP2 asociado con obesidad en adultos de la ciudad de Valledupar. Materiales y métodos: Se estudiaron 103 individuos con sobrepeso u obesidad y 100 con normopeso. El polimorfismo de UCP2 -866G/A fue determinado por PCR-RFLP. Se evaluaron también medidas antropométricas, perfil de lipoproteínas y glucemia basal. Resultados: Se observó que el alelo mutado y su genotipo homocigoto fueron significativamente más frecuentes en pacientes con IMC > a 25 kg/m2. [A: OR= 2,9 (IC 95%= 1,765-4,751) y AA: OR=5,8 (IC 95%= 1,264-2,745)]. No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre UCP2 -866G/A y las variables clínicas estudiadas en individuos obesos. Sin embargo, se observa que los sujetos con alelos y genotipos mutados presentaron cifras más elevadas de triglicéridos, glucemia e ICC y menor promedio de cHDL. Conclusiones: la mutación -866G/A del gen UCP2 se asocia a obesidad en la población estudiada y aunque no parece influir en las medidas antropométricas y bioquímicas en sujetos obesos, podría estar relacionado con aumento de ICC, glucosa y triglicéridos y disminución de cHDL.

Phylogeographic analysis of the chloroplast DNA variation in wild common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in the Americas

The wild common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is widely but discontinuously distributed from northern Mexico to northern Argentina on both sides of the Isthmus of Panama. Little is known on how the species has reached its current disjunct distribution. In this research, chloroplast DNA polymorphisms in seven non-coding regions were used to study the history of migration of wild P. vulgaris between Mesoamerica and South America. A penalized likelihood analysis was applied to previously published Leguminosae ITS data to estimate divergence times between P. vulgaris and its sister taxa from Mesoamerica, and divergence times of populations within P. vulgaris. Fourteen chloroplast haplotypes were identified by PCR-RFLP and their geographical associations were studied by means of a Nested Clade Analysis and Mantel Tests. The results suggest that the haplotypes are not randomly distributed but occupy discrete parts of the geographic range of the species. The current distribution of haplotypes may be explained by isolation by distance and by at least two migration events between Mesoamerica and South America: one from Mesoamerica to South America and another one from northern South America to Mesoamerica. Age estimates place the divergence of P. vulgaris from its sister taxa from Mesoamerica at or before 1.3 Ma, and divergence of populations from Ecuador-northern Peru at or before 0.6 Ma. As these ages are taken as minimum divergence times, the influence of past events, such as the closure of the Isthmus of Panama and the final uplift of the Andes, on the migration history and population structure of this species cannot be disregarded.