Developing purchase invoice processing through workflow automation

The aim of this master’s thesis is to research and analyze how purchase invoice processing can be automated and streamlined in a system renewal project. The impacts of workflow automation on invoice handling are studied by means of time, cost and quality aspects. Purchase invoice processing has a lot of potential for automation because of its labor-intensive and repetitive nature. As a case study combining both qualitative and quantitative methods, the topic is approached from a business process management point of view. The current process was first explored through interviews and workshop meetings to create a holistic understanding of the process at hand. Requirements for process streamlining were then researched focusing on specified vendors and their purchase invoices, which helped to identify the critical factors for successful invoice automation. To optimize the flow from invoice receipt to approval for payment, the invoice receiving process was outsourced and the automation functionalities of the new system utilized in invoice handling. The quality of invoice data and the need of simple structured purchase order (PO) invoices were emphasized in the system testing phase. Hence, consolidated invoices containing references to multiple PO or blanket release numbers should be simplified in order to use automated PO matching. With non-PO invoices, it is important to receive the buyer reference details in an applicable invoice data field so that automation rules could be created to route invoices to a review and approval flow. In the beginning of the project, invoice processing was seen ineffective both time- and cost-wise, and it required a lot of manual labor to carry out all tasks. In accordance with testing results, it was estimated that over half of the invoices could be automated within a year after system implementation. Processing times could be reduced remarkably, which would then result savings up to 40 % in annual processing costs. Due to several advancements in the purchase invoice process, business process quality could also be perceived as improved.

Toimittajayhteistyön rooli yritysten innovaatiotoiminnassa

Tässä kandidaatintutkielmassa tarkastellaan toimittajasuhteiden roolia yritysten kehitystoiminnassa. Tutkielmassa perehdytään toimittajan ja ostajan yhteistyön elementteihin ja syvennytään suhteen asemaan ostajan kehitystoiminnan kannalta. Toimittajayhteistyön roolia tarkastellaan tapaustutkimuksen avulla.

Content marketing performance measurement system in the context of customer acquisition

This thesis examines how content marketing is used in B2B customer acquisition and how content marketing performance measurement system is built and utilized in this context. Literature related to performance measurement, branding and buyer behavior is examined in the theoretical part in order to identify the elements influence on content marketing performance measurement design and usage. Qualitative case study is chosen in order to gain deep understanding of the phenomenon studied. The case company is a Finnish software vendor, which operates in B2B markets and has practiced content marketing for approximately two years. The in-depth interviews were conducted with three employees from marketing department. According to findings content marketing performance measurement system’s infrastructure is based on target market’s decision making processes, company’s own customer acquisition process, marketing automation tool and analytics solutions. The main roles of content marketing performance measurement system are measuring performance, strategy management and learning and improvement. Content marketing objectives in the context of customer acquisition are enhancing brand awareness, influencing brand attitude and lead generation. Both non-financial and financial outcomes are assessed by single phase specific metrics, phase specific overall KPIs and ratings related to lead’s involvement.

Liiketoimintamallin uudistuminen yrityskaupassa

Diplomityön tavoitteena on tutkia yrityskaupan vaikutuksia liiketoimintaan. Kuinka se muuttui yrityskaupan jälkeen ja kuinka se vastasi ennalta suunniteltua strategiaa. Työ tehtiin haastattelututkimuksena, jossa tutkittavina kohdeyhtiöinä oli kuusi yritystä, jotka olivat laajentuneet ostamalla yrityksen tai yrityksiä. Yhtiöiden tavoitteena oli hakea kasvua ostamalla valmis yritys tai liiketoiminta. Tutkimuksen teoreettisen viitekehityksen mukaisesti, jos yrityksen kasvustrategiana on kasvaa yrityskaupan avulla, sillä on vaikutus liiketoimintaan yrityskaupan jälkeen. Työn tuloksena saatiin arvio siitä, kuinka alkuperäinen strateginen tavoite saavutettiin ja mitä muita hyötyjä ja haittoja liiketoiminnan yhdistämisellä oli. Työn keskeisimmät tulokset olivat, että yrityskaupalla on aina vaikutus yrityksen liike- toimintaan. Paras hyöty saadaan, jos ostettavan yrityksen liiketointa on täydentävää, ei päällekkäistä liiketoimintaa. Yhdistymisestä saadaan hyötyjä jos yritykset voivat hyödyn- tää toinen toisensa osaamista. Etuina saadaan myös synergiahyötyjä, erityisesti yrityksen hallinnossa ja toiminnanohjausjärjestelmissä. Ostettavan yrityksen haltuunotto tulisi olla hallittu ja nopea.

Yrittäjän poistuminen – yrittäjän yritystoiminnasta poistumisen suunnittelu

Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli laadullisia menetelmiä käyttäen lisätä ymmärrystä yrittäjän poistumisen ilmiöstä. Yrittäjän näkökulmasta tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan poistumiseen suhtautumista ja sen suunnitteluun ja toteutukseen vaikuttavia yrittäjän sisäisiä ja ulkoisia tekijöitä. Tutkimuksen aineisto kerättiin Lahden lähialueen yrittäjiltä käyttäen teemahaastattelun menetelmää. Aineiston analyysin menetelmänä oli teemoittelu. Psykologista omistajuutta sovellettiin tutkimuksen viitekehyksenä. Tutkimuksen tuloksena havaittiin yrittäjien suunnittelevan poistumistaan kahdessa vaiheessa, poistuen ensin yrittäjän roolista ja vasta määräämättömän ajan jälkeen kokonaan yrityksen toiminnasta ja sen tukijan roolista. Toimintatapa helpottaa yrittäjän psykologisesta omistajuudesta ja identiteetin muutoksesta johtuvaa luopumisen vaikeutta. Ulkoisista poistumiseen vaikuttavista tekijöistä tutkimuksessa nostetaan esille perheyritysten perintöveroon liitetyt ennakkokäsitykset, jotka voivat vaikuttaa poistumisen lykkäämiseen. Psykologisen omistajuuden käsite ja tutkimuksessa havaittu poistumiseen liitetty tabu selittävät osittain yrityksen ostajan löytämisen vaikeutta ja lopettavien yrittäjien määrää Suomessa. Tutkimuksen tulokset ovat merkittäviä yrittäjyyttä ja omistajanvaihdoksia edistävien toimijoiden kannalta.

Towards a contextual understanding of B2B salespeople's selling competencies – An exploratory study among purchasing decision-makers of internationally-oriented technology firms

ABSTRACT Towards a contextual understanding of B2B salespeople’s selling competencies − an exploratory study among purchasing decision-makers of internationally-oriented technology firms The characteristics of modern selling can be classified as follows: customer retention and loyalty targets, database and knowledge management, customer relationship management, marketing activities, problem solving and system selling, and satisfying needs and creating value. For salespeople to be successful in this environment, they need a wide range of competencies. Salespeople’s selling skills are well documented in seller side literature through quantitative methods, but the knowledge, skills and competencies from the buyer’s perspective are under-researched. The existing research on selling competencies should be broadened and updated through a qualitative research perspective due to the dynamic nature and the contextual dependence of selling competencies. The purpose of the study is to increase understanding of the professional salesperson’s selling competencies from the industrial purchasing decision- makers’ viewpoint within the relationship selling context. In this study, competencies are defined as sales-related knowledge and skills. The scope of the study includes goods, materials and services managed by a company’s purchasing function and used by an organization on a daily basis. The abductive approach and ‘systematic combining’ have been applied as a research strategy. In this research, data were generated through semi- structured, person-to-person interviews and open-ended questions. The study was conducted among purchasing decision-makers in the technology industry in Finland. The branches consisted of the electronics and electro-technical industries and the mechanical engineering and metals industries. A total of 30 companies and one purchasing decision-maker from each company were purposively chosen for the sampling. The sample covers different company sizes based on their revenues, their differing structures – varying from public to family companies –that represent domestic and international ownerships. Before analyzing the data, they were organized by the purchasing orientations of the buyers: the buying, procurement or supply management orientation. Thematic analysis was chosen as the analysis method. After analyzing the data, the results were contrasted with the theory. There was a continuous interaction between the empirical data and the theory. Based on the findings, a total of 19 major knowledge and skills were identified from the buyers’ perspective. The specific knowledge and skills from the viewpoint of customers’ prevalent purchasing orientations were divided into two categories, generic and contextual. The generic knowledge and skills apply to all purchasing orientations, and the contextual knowledge and skills depend on customers’ prevalent purchasing orientations. Generic knowledge and skills relate to price setting, negotiation, communication and interaction skills, while contextual ones relate to knowledge brokering, ability to present solutions and relationship skills. Buying-oriented buyers value salespeople who are ‘action oriented experts, however at a bit of an arm’s length’, procurement buyers value salespeople who are ‘experts deeply dedicated to the customer and fostering the relationship’ and supply management buyers value salespeople who are ‘corporate-oriented experts’. In addition, the buyer’s perceptions on knowledge and selling skills differ from the seller’s ones. The buyer side emphasizes managing the subject matter, consisting of the expertise, understanding the customers’ business and needs, creating a customized solution and creating value, reliability and an ability to build long-term relationships, while the seller side emphasizes communica- tion, interaction and salesmanship skills. The study integrates the selling skills of the current three-component model− technical knowledge, salesmanship skills, interpersonal skills− and relationship skills and purchasing orientations, into a selling competency model. The findings deepen and update the content of these knowledges and skills in the B2B setting and create new insights into them from the buyer’s perspective, and thus the study increases contextual understanding of selling competencies. It generates new knowledge of the salesperson’s competencies for the relationship selling and personal selling and sales management literature. It also adds knowledge of the buying orientations to the buying behavior literature. The findings challenge sales management to perceive salespeople’s selling skills both from a contingency and competence perspective. The study has several managerial implications: it increases understanding of what the critical selling knowledge and skills from the buyer’s point of view are, understanding of how salespeople effectively implement the relationship marketing concept, sales management’s knowledge of how to manage the sales process more effectively and efficiently, and the knowledge of how sales management should develop a salesperson’s selling competencies when managing and developing the sales force. Keywords: selling competencies, knowledge, selling skills, relationship skills, purchasing orientations, B2B selling, abductive approach, technology firms

Foreign Divestment Decisions in Banking − Case Nordea in Poland

In the 21st century, the realignment of multinational companies’ business scope has become a major issue globally. A very prominent part of the global realignment process, alongside with mergers, acquisitions and alliances, are foreign divestments. Foreign divestments have become an integral aspect of international business since they are now widely practiced by MNCs from a growing and diverse range of home countries and host economies. The objective of this thesis is to identify the factors that contribute to foreign divestment decisions in the banking sector. This thesis is a qualitative research with a single case study approach. The chosen case of this thesis is the divestment made by the internationally operating Nordic financial service group, Nordea, in Poland in 2013. The empirical findings were obtained by interviewing experts from the case company and the interviews were conducted as theme interviews using the four themes that according to the theoretical framework of this thesis are the contributing factors in foreign divestment decisions: (1) environmental stability, (2) attractiveness of current operations, (3) strategic fit, and (4) governance issues. The empirical findings of this thesis suggest that there were four dominant contributors to the foreign divestment decision of the case company: (1) host government regulations, (2) strategic considerations, (3) economic outlook, and (4) interested buyer. The empirical findings mostly support the accuracy of the selected framework as the first three theme groups were found to be major contributors also in the case company’s foreign divestment. However, the importance of the fourth theme group, ‘governance issues’, is not supported by the findings of this thesis. Furthermore the findings suggest that in addition to the groups presented in the framework, also timing can be an import factor in divestment decisions. Three managerial recommendations can be drawn from the findings of this thesis: (1) If a foreign divestment decision is the best course of action due to strategic reasons, it should not be avoided; (2) The pre-investment due diligence processes should not be ignored since it can help to avoid unwanted divestments; and (3) Companies should concentrate on building good relationships with the host government since it can facilitate business activities in the host country.

Alkoholin verkkokauppamarkkinat Suomessa

Opinnäytetyö alkoholin verkkokauppamarkkinoista Suomessa on katsaus markkinoihin, jotka ovat olleet esillä mediassa viime aikoina hyvinkin paljon. Opinnäytetyössä analysoidaan Michael Porterin viiden kilpailuvoiman mallin avulla toimialaa. Porterin viisi kilpailuvoimaa ovat toimialan nykyinen kilpailu, tavarantoimittajien neuvotteluvoima, kuluttajien neuvotteluvoima, uusien kilpailijoiden uhka sekä korvaavien tuotteiden tai palveuluiden uhka. Tämän lisäksi työssä tarkastellaan lainsäädäntöä kuudentena kilpailuvoimana, sillä se asettaa merkittävät kilpailulliset reunaehdot. Toimiala-analyysin jälkeen siirrytään varsinaiseen tutkimusongelmaan, jossa pohditaan, kannattaako Alkon perustaa verkkokauppa? Tähän liittyen apututkimuskysymyksissä pohditaan mitä lisäarvoa alkoholin verkkokauppa luo ylipäätään kuluttajille sekä tavarantoimittajille/maahantuojille. Opinnäytetyöhön on liitetty ajatuksia, joita on kerätty haastattelemalla kolmea eri henkilöä, joilta löytyy merkittävästi tietoa alkoholimarkkinoista. Alko Oy ei ole osallisena, vaan opinnäytetyö on kirjoitettu täysin objektiivisesti, vaikka siinä onkin paljon kirjoittan omaa empiriaa. Haastattelut ovat tarkoituksella jätetty keskustelunomaisiksi, ja ovat siten melko subjektiivisia näkemyksiä eri ihmisten silmin. Monopolit herättävät keskustelua ja Alkon asema yhteiskunnallisena monopolina onkin asetettu kriittiseen tarkasteluun tutkimuksessa. Teoriassa käsiteltiin myös Alkon palvelualttiutta 4C –mallin avulla sekä Alkoa yrityksenä analysoitiin SWOT –analyysilla. Näiden teorioiden, toimiala-analyysin, haastatteluiden, kirjoittajan oman näkemyksen sekä eri lähteistä löydetyn informaation myötä voidaan todeta, että Alkon verkkokaupalle on tarve, joka on ollut olemassa jo pitkään. Monopoliaseman oletetaan olleen syy tälle hitaalle kehitykselle. Kuluttajien lisäarvoa olisi ehdottomasti kotiinkuljetus, mutta sitä Alko ei tarjoa. Toisaalta verkkokaupan myötä laajeneva tuotevalikoima on selkeä lisäarvo. Tavarantoimittajien/maahantuojien lisäarvoa ei vielä pystytty selvittämään, koska siihen suhtauduttiin ristiriitaisesti.

Colin Duquemin fonds, 1935, 1968-2001, n.d.

Colin Duquemin was born in 1932 in Guernsey, British Channel Islands, and came to Canada as a young adult. He attended McMaster University (B.A.), the University of Toronto (B.Ed.), the State University of New York at Buffalo (M.A.) and the University of London, London, England (M.Sc.). He began his career as a tea taster and tea buyer in Colombo, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), but later became a teacher. He spent most of his teaching career as a manager of the St. Johns Outdoor Studies Centre, north of Fonthill, Ontario, developing environmentally related programmes for elementary and secondary school students. He was also active in many local organizations, serving as Associate Director of the St. Catharines Grape and Wine Festival Board, Chairman of the St. Catharines Historical Museum Board, President of the Niagara Military Institute and President of the Canadian Canal Society. In addition to the numerous curriculum materials he authored, Colin wrote the Driver’s Guide Series, highlighting the many points of interest in the Niagara region, including the Welland Canal, battlefields of the War of 1812, and the Niagara Parkway. He also wrote A Guide to the Grand River Canal (1980) with Daniel Glenney, The Fur Trade in Rupert’s Land: Opening up the Canadian Northwest (1992), Stick to the Guns! A short history of the 10th field battery, Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery (1996), Niagara Rebels: the Niagara Frontier Incidents in the Upper Canada Rebellion, 1837-1838 ( 2001), and edited and contributed to A Lodge of Friendship: the History of Niagara Lodge, No. 2, A.F. & A.M, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada, 1792-1992 (1991). He died in December 2012.

Le transfert de documents conformes et la résolution du contrat pour leur non-conformité selon la convention de Vienne sur la vente internationale de marchandises

La présente étude examine une des difficultés que soulève l'exécution des contrats de vente mettant en relation des parties situées dans des pays différents. Ces contrats connaissent des problèmes bien particuliers. En effet, en donnant lieu à l'expédition des marchandises vendues, ces contrats obligent aussi le vendeur à transférer à l'acheteur les documents conformes représentatifs de celles-ci. La non-conformité des documents se distingue de la non-conformité des marchandises et constitue une source principale des litiges visant la résolution des contrats dans ce secteur commercial. La diversité des solutions susceptibles de s'y appliquer est devenue une réalité depuis que les droits internes doivent coexister avec les règles de la Convention de Vienne sur la vente internationale de marchandises. En principe, aucune difficulté ne se pose lorsqu'un droit interne est désigné comme étant le droit compétent: il suffirait d'appliquer les solutions de ce droit. Ainsi, par exemple, l'acheteur peut résoudre le contrat si les documents ne sont pas conformes aux stipulations contractuelles sur la base du concept de fundamental breach (en cas de vente non documentaire) ou sur la base de la stricte conformité (en cas de vente documentaire) que retiennent les droits anglo-américain; en revanche dans les systèmes de droit civil (où la distinction entre vente documentaire et vente non documentaire n'existe pas), pareille résolution du contrat basée sur le défaut de conformité des documents n'est possible qu'en présence d'un préjudice important ou d'un défaut majeur. Plusieurs justifications fondamentales sous-tendent la raison d'être des solutions retenues par les droits nationaux: quête de sécurité juridique et recherche de solution conforme aux besoins des opérateurs du commerce international. Néanmoins, il appert que de telles justifications sont également présentes dans la Convention de Vienne. De plus, cette Convention oblige le vendeur à transférer à l'acheteur les documents conformes de la vente. Cependant, elle le fait de manière indirecte sans pour autant préciser quels types de documents doivent faire l'objet du transfert. L'opportunité d'un tel transfert dépendra donc, sous réserves des dispositions impératives, de l'accord des parties et des usages commerciaux qui ont préséance sur les règles unifiées. Ce qui en fait parfois une question d'interprétation du contrat ou une question de comblement des lacunes de ce droit uniforme de la vente internationale. En ce sens, ce dernier droit diffère des droits nationaux qui sont plus clairs à cet égard. Quant aux conditions de la résolution du contrat pour non-conformité des documents, quel que soit le système national considéré, la solution qu'il consacre contraste avec celle prévue par la Convention de Vienne qui n'admet une telle sanction qu'en présence d'une contravention essentielle. Cette dualité entre droits nationaux et droit matériel uniforme nous met en face d'un constat bien évident: l'avènement de la Convention de Vienne sur la vente internationale de marchandises et la règle de la contravention essentielle qu'elle consacre, perturbent le paysage juridique jusqu'ici en vigueur dans chacun des États signataires. Ce qui justifie tout l'intérêt du sujet: la contravention essentielle par opposition à la règle de la stricte conformité et celle basée sur l'importance du préjudice prévues par les droits internes sont-elles des règles exclusives l'une de l'autre? La réponse est loin d'être certaine en dépit des convergences possibles dans le dénouement du contentieux de la résolution, même si par ailleurs il faut admettre qu'il s'agit de régimes juridiques bien différents. Tout en subordonnant la résolution du contrat à l'existence d'une contravention essentielle, lorsque la Convention de Vienne s'applique (DEUXIÈME PARTIE), la présente étude propose une interprétation de celle-ci en examinant son contenu ainsi que les différentes sources qui interfèrent dans sa mise en œuvre afin de démontrer que ce droit uniforme, malgré ses limites, régit les aspects documentaires de la vente internationale (PREMIÈRE PARTIE).

Essais sur la conception de mécanismes et les enchères

Cette thèse est composée de trois essais liés à la conception de mécanisme et aux enchères. Dans le premier essai j'étudie la conception de mécanismes bayésiens efficaces dans des environnements où les fonctions d'utilité des agents dépendent de l'alternative choisie même lorsque ceux-ci ne participent pas au mécanisme. En plus d'une règle d'attribution et d'une règle de paiement le planificateur peut proférer des menaces afin d'inciter les agents à participer au mécanisme et de maximiser son propre surplus; Le planificateur peut présumer du type d'un agent qui ne participe pas. Je prouve que la solution du problème de conception peut être trouvée par un choix max-min des types présumés et des menaces. J'applique ceci à la conception d'une enchère multiple efficace lorsque la possession du bien par un acheteur a des externalités négatives sur les autres acheteurs. Le deuxième essai considère la règle du juste retour employée par l'agence spatiale européenne (ESA). Elle assure à chaque état membre un retour proportionnel à sa contribution, sous forme de contrats attribués à des sociétés venant de cet état. La règle du juste retour est en conflit avec le principe de la libre concurrence puisque des contrats ne sont pas nécessairement attribués aux sociétés qui font les offres les plus basses. Ceci a soulevé des discussions sur l'utilisation de cette règle: les grands états ayant des programmes spatiaux nationaux forts, voient sa stricte utilisation comme un obstacle à la compétitivité et à la rentabilité. Apriori cette règle semble plus coûteuse à l'agence que les enchères traditionnelles. Nous prouvons au contraire qu'une implémentation appropriée de la règle du juste retour peut la rendre moins coûteuse que des enchères traditionnelles de libre concurrence. Nous considérons le cas de l'information complète où les niveaux de technologie des firmes sont de notoriété publique, et le cas de l'information incomplète où les sociétés observent en privée leurs coûts de production. Enfin, dans le troisième essai je dérive un mécanisme optimal d'appel d'offre dans un environnement où un acheteur d'articles hétérogènes fait face a de potentiels fournisseurs de différents groupes, et est contraint de choisir une liste de gagnants qui est compatible avec des quotas assignés aux différents groupes. La règle optimale d'attribution consiste à assigner des niveaux de priorité aux fournisseurs sur la base des coûts individuels qu'ils rapportent au décideur. La manière dont ces niveaux de priorité sont déterminés est subjective mais connue de tous avant le déroulement de l'appel d'offre. Les différents coûts rapportés induisent des scores pour chaque liste potentielle de gagnant. Les articles sont alors achetés à la liste ayant les meilleurs scores, s'il n'est pas plus grand que la valeur de l'acheteur. Je montre également qu'en général il n'est pas optimal d'acheter les articles par des enchères séparées.

Significance Of Product Type And Brand In The Purchasing Behaviour Of Cattle Feeds: An Empirical Study In Kerala

Cattle feed industry is a major segment of animal feed industry. This industry is gradually evolving into an organized sector and the feed manufactures are increasingly using modern and sophisticated methods that seek to incorporate best global practices. This industry has got high potential for growth in India, given the fact that the country is the world’s leading producer of milk and its production is expected to grow at a compounded annual growth rate of 4 per cent. Besides, the concept of branded cattle feed as a packaged commodity is fast gaining popularity in rural India. There can be a positive change in the demand for cattle feed because of factors like (i) shrinkage of open land for cattle grazing, urbanization and resultant shortage of conventionally used cattle feeds, and (ii) introduction of high yield cattle requires specialized feeds. Earlier research studies done by the present authors have revealed the significant growth prospects of the branded cattle feed industry, the feed consumption pattern and the relatively high share of branded feeds, feed consumption pattern based on product types (like, pellet and mash), composition of cattle feed market and the relatively large shares of Kerala Feeds Ltd. (KFL) and Kerala Solvent Extractions Ltd. (KSE) brands, the major factors influencing the purchasing decisions etc. As a continuation of the earlier studies, this study makes a closer look into the significance of product types in the buyer behavior, level of awareness about the brand and its implications on purchasing decisions, and the brandshifting behavior and its determinants

Performance of Supply Chain when using selected Coordination Mechanisms

Coordination among supply chain members is essential for better supply chain performance. An effective method to improve supply chain coordination is to implement proper coordination mechanisms. The primary objective of this research is to study the performance of a multi-level supply chain while using selected coordination mechanisms separately, and in combination, under lost sale and back order cases. The coordination mechanisms used in this study are price discount, delay in payment and different types of information sharing. Mathematical modelling and simulation modelling are used in this study to analyse the performance of the supply chain using these mechanisms. Initially, a three level supply chain consisting of a supplier, a manufacturer and a retailer has been used to study the combined effect of price discount and delay in payment on the performance (profit) of supply chain using mathematical modelling. This study showed that implementation of individual mechanisms improves the performance of the supply chain compared to ‘no coordination’. When more than one mechanism is used in combination, performance in most cases further improved. The three level supply chain considered in mathematical modelling was then extended to a three level network supply chain consisting of a four retailers, two wholesalers, and a manufacturer with an infinite part supplier. The performance of this network supply chain was analysed under both lost sale and backorder cases using simulation modelling with the same mechanisms: ‘price discount and delay in payment’ used in mathematical modelling. This study also showed that the performance of the supply chain is significantly improved while using combination of mechanisms as obtained earlier. In this study, it is found that the effect (increase in profit) of ‘delay in payment’ and combination of ‘price discount’ & ‘delay in payment’ on SC profit is relatively high in the case of lost sale. Sensitivity analysis showed that order cost of the retailer plays a major role in the performance of the supply chain as it decides the order quantity of the other players in the supply chain in this study. Sensitivity analysis also showed that there is a proportional change in supply chain profit with change in rate of return of any player. In the case of price discount, elasticity of demand is an important factor to improve the performance of the supply chain. It is also found that the change in permissible delay in payment given by the seller to the buyer affects the SC profit more than the delay in payment availed by the buyer from the seller. In continuation of the above, a study on the performance of a four level supply chain consisting of a manufacturer, a wholesaler, a distributor and a retailer with ‘information sharing’ as coordination mechanism, under lost sale and backorder cases, using a simulation game with live players has been conducted. In this study, best performance is obtained in the case of sharing ‘demand and supply chain performance’ compared to other seven types of information sharing including traditional method. This study also revealed that effect of information sharing on supply chain performance is relatively high in the case of lost sale than backorder. The in depth analysis in this part of the study showed that lack of information sharing need not always be resulting in bullwhip effect. Instead of bullwhip effect, lack of information sharing produced a huge hike in lost sales cost or backorder cost in this study which is also not favorable for the supply chain. Overall analysis provided the extent of improvement in supply chain performance under different cases. Sensitivity analysis revealed useful insights about the decision variables of supply chain and it will be useful for the supply chain management practitioners to take appropriate decisions.

The diversity of postharvest losses in cassava value chains in selected developing countries

The extent of physical and economic postharvest losses at different stages of cassava value chains has been estimated in four countries that differ considerably in the way cassava is cultivated, processed and consumed and in the relationships and linkages among the value chain actors. Ghana incurs by far the highest losses because a high proportion of roots reach the consumers in the fresh form. Most losses occur at the last stage of the value chain. In Nigeria and Vietnam processors incur most of the losses while in Thailand most losses occur during harvesting. Poorer countries incur higher losses despite their capacity to absorb sub-standard products (therefore transforming part of the physical losses into economic losses) and less strict buyer standards. In monetary terms the impact of losses is particularly severe in Ghana and estimated at about half a billion US dollar per annum while in the other countries it is at the most about USD 50 million. This comparison shows that there are no “one-size-fits-all" solutions for addressing postharvest losses but rather these must be tailor-made to the specific characteristics of the different value chains.

Análisis de los procesos de internacionalización en el sector petrolero : Ecopetrol, Petrobras Y Exxonmobil

El presente trabajo se centra en el fenómeno de la internacionalización dentro del sector petrolero. Para esto, se escogió a tres empresas: Ecopetrol, por ser la empresa colombiana más grande; Petrobras, el mayor representante de Latinoamérica; y Exxon Mobil, un gigante del petróleo a nivel mundial. Estas empresas, que se encuentran en diferentes etapas dentro de su proceso de la internacionalización, muestran comportamientos estratégicos similares. Son precisamente estas similitudes las que permitieron proponer un modelo de internacionalización generalizado para las diferentes empresas que componen dicho sector económico. Para alcanzar dicho modelo, se recurrió a diferentes teorías de internacionalización desarrolladas por varias escuelas de negocios en el mundo, tales como el Modelo Ecléctico, el de Uppsala o la Teoría de Redes. Cabe destacar que dicho modelo propuesto es una aproximación teórica a la realidad empresarial de las compañías petroleras, usando como marco de referencia una muestra pequeña de este tipo de organizaciones. Dentro de este modelo, los altos matices de complejidad propios del fenómeno de la internacionalización se ven reducidos de manera considerable, como parte del ejercicio académico propuesto en el presente estudio.