Defense Expenditure: Central America and The Dominican Republic

It is often speculated that the high allocation of funds to retirement pension systems has influenced the capacity of Central American and Dominican Republic military to modernize. Yet, the comparative study of the allocation of pension and social funds in these particular countries suggest that there is not direct linkage between the poor funding of military modernization plans and the allocation of funds to military pension systems. The research conducted on this subject shows the following results: 1. The Dominican Republic is the only country that has embarked on a considerable procurement of modern equipment and still reports the largest proportion of social expenditures. 2. El Salvador’s defense budget allocates minimal funding to Social Welfare Institute, which as alternative sources of funding. In 2009, El Salvador increased 15 percent funding to the military to respond to increased role in domestic security issues. 3. The Guatemalan defense expenditure on social programs is fairly low, but it has grown during the past six years due to processes of demobilization. However, the Military Social Welfare Institute is administered by a decentralized institution funded directly by the Ministry of Finance. If it were to be considered as a part of the defense budget, its social expenses would account for almost 16% of it. 4. The Honduran Defense Budget has faced a considerable enlargement during the past four years, with social spending expenses taken precedence over modernization efforts. 2 5. The Nicaraguan system of military pensions is administered by a decentralized entity (IPSM) through a system of salary deductions. Information on the funding of this entity is inconclusive. The Nicaraguan Defense spending on social services has reported a drastic 90% drop since the year 2007.

Guatemala: A Failing State?

 Guatemala is not a failed state and is unlikely to become one in the near future. Although the state currently fails to provide adequate security to its citizens or an appropriate range of effective social programs, it does supply a functioning electoral democracy, sound economic management, and a promising new antipoverty program, My Family Progresses (MIFAPRO).  Guatemala is a weak state. The principal security threats represented by expanding Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs), criminal parallel powers, and urban gangs have overwhelmed the resources of the under-resourced and compromised criminal justice system. The UN-sponsored International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), however, has demonstrated that progress against organized crime is possible.  The principal obstacles to strengthening the Guatemalan state lie in the traditional economic elite’s resistance to taxation and the venal political class’ narrow focus on short-term interests. Guatemala lacks a strong, policyoriented, mass-based political party that could develop a coherent national reform program and mobilize public support around it.  The United States should strengthen the Guatemalan state by expanding the Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI) and by strongly supporting CICIG, MIFAPRO, and the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE).

Venezuela and Chile: Two Opposite Paths of Democratic Consolidation and Economic Development.

In the past 20 years, Chile and Venezuela have followed divergent paths of democratic and economic development. When the Cold War ended, Venezuela was one of the few Latin American countries where democracy had survived the authoritarian wave of the 1960 and 1970s. Heralded in the late 1980s as the most stable democracy and one of the most developed and globalized economies in the region, Venezuela has since experienced deterioration of democratic institutions, political polarization, economic stagnation, and instability. In contrast, Chile has experienced a democratic renaissance since 1990. Rapid economic growth, an increasingly efficient public sector, significant reductions in poverty, and improvements in social programs have all made Chile a regional leader in democratic consolidation and sustainable development. Chile emerges as a success story and Venezuela as a country lagging behind in terms of making progress in economic development and poverty reduction. While Chile has developed a democratic system based on institutions, Venezuela has seen its democracy evolve towards increasing concentration of power on the hands of President Hugo Chávez.

The Basis of Support for Hugo Chávez: Measuring the Determinants of Presidential Job Approval in Venezuela

Since 1999, Venezuela has experienced a dramatic transformation of its political system with the coming to power of Hugo Chávez and his movement, known in Venezuela as Chavismo. Chávez has dismantled the previous political system and established neo-populist structures that rely on his personal appeal and the close collaboration of the armed forces. Chávez has relied heavily on significant support from the poor and those who felt economically and politically excluded by the “Punto Fijo system.” President Chávez has built an impressive record of electoral victories; winning every electoral contest except one since coming to power in 1999. He continues to receive relatively high levels of support among sectors of Venezuelan society. However, there is evidence of growing discontent with high crime rates, high levels of inflation, and significant corruption in the public administration. Using data from the AmericasBarometer surveys conducted in 2007, 2008 and 2010, this paper seeks to examine the basis of Chávez’s popular support. In general, the AmericasBarometer findings suggest that Venezuelans support for President Chávez is closely linked to the access to social programs and that as long as the government is able to fund these social programs or missions, particularly MERCAL and Barrio Adentro, it will possess an important tool to garner and sustain support for President Chávez. Our analysis, however, also indicates that evaluations of the national economic situation, more than crime or insecurity, are a key factor that could undermine support for the regime.

Social Learning Theory and Prison Work Release Programs

The authors’ review of literature about Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory and self-efficacy leads to implications on how this theory can positively affect prison work release programs and inmate post-release outcomes. Additionally, several causes of deviant behavior have been explained by social learning theory concepts.

Social Justice as a Disposition for Teacher Education Programs: Why is it Such a Problem?

The authors question the actions of National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) leadership for removing social justice in the glossary of terms to describe dispositions for education graduates, trace the origins of the multiple discourses surrounding social justice, and argue for problematizing social justice issues.

Self-esteem and job satisfaction of adults with mild mental retardation in sheltered workshops and supported employment programs

A sample of 200 adults with mild mental retardation were assessed on overall job satisfaction and self-esteem using the Vocational Program Evaluation Profile and the Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory. The subjects worked either in a sheltered workshop or in a supported employment setting. Results indicated that there was a significant relationship between self-esteem and job satisfaction for both groups of subjects. In addition, subjects who worked in supported employment reported significantly higher levels of job satisfaction also. There was also an interaction between place of residence and place of employment when looking at self-esteem; those who live in a semi-independent home and work in supported employment reported the highest levels of self-esteem. These results are discussed in terms of the social validity of supported-employment for persons with mild mental retardation. ^

The relative influence of social support, rehabilitation program participation, and inmate preincarceration characteristics on incarcerated substance abusers' perceptions of adjustment to community reintegration

This dissertation identifies, examines, and assesses the relative influence of identified empirically and conceptually relevant variables on incarcerated substance abusers' expectations of postrelease adjustment. A purposive sampling procedure was used to recruit 101 male and female substance-abusing offenders participating in prison- and jail-based drug treatment programs in south Florida. A 92-item survey questionnaire was used to collect basic demographic data; measure inmate preincarceration characteristics, social support, and rehabilitation program participation; and record archival data. Regression equations were developed utilizing ten different measures of the participants' expectations of their postrelease adjustment. Two equations yielded statistically significant F ratios; maintaining a stable living and maintaining abstinence. Twenty-two percent of the variance in respondents' expectations of maintaining a stable living was explained by preincarceration characteristics, social support, and rehabilitation program participation (F = 1.89; df = 13,87; p $<$.05). The only significant predictor variable was perception of social support (b = $-$.05; t = $-$3.6; p $<$.001). Twenty-three percent of the variance in respondents' expectations of maintaining abstinence from substances was explained by preincarceration characteristics, social support, and rehabilitation program participation (F = 2; df = 13,87; p $<$.05). Once again, the only significant predictor variable was perception of social support. The results of the analyses indicate that social support was the only important variable for understanding these respondents' efficacy expectations of postrelease abstinence and stable living. The results of this investigation demonstrate the complexity of the social support variable for prisoners, and identify social support as a potential rehabilitative resource for substance-abusing inmates. The results of this investigation underscore the importance of continued, detailed empirical study in order to understand and clarify how social support, efficacy expectations, and actual postrelease performance interrelate for this population of offenders.

Factors associated with social work student satisfaction with field placements in child welfare

This study was conducted during the 1994-1995 academic year. Seven social work education programs in the state of Florida, all accredited by the Council on Social Work Education, participated in this study. Graduate and undergraduate social work students in child welfare field placements, and their field instructors, were surveyed during the Spring 1995 semester to assess their satisfaction with field placements in this area and the relationship of this satisfaction to employment interests and field placement recommendations.^ The majority of social work students responding to this survey were generally satisfied with several aspects of their field placements--the learning, field work program, field instructor, child welfare agency, and overall field experience. The field instructors were generally more satisfied than the students, but only statistically different from the students in the areas of satisfaction with the field work program and the child welfare agency. Multiple regression analysis revealed that learning assignment opportunities, field instructor relationship characteristics, placement preference, and pre-placement interview contributed to the prediction of student satisfaction.^ Student satisfaction in field placement was significantly related to the acceptance of employment, if offered, and the recommendation of the field placement to other students. Logistic regression analysis revealed that satisfaction with the child welfare agency was the greatest contributor to the prediction of acceptance of employment, and satisfaction with the field work program was the greatest contributor to the prediction of field placement recommendation. ^

Differences in perceptions of teachers' and students' values of physical education programs in private universities in Taipei City, Taiwan

After the New University Code was issued in 1994, the university physical education program was at a crossroad in Taiwan. Physical education teachers are facing changes in the curriculum. The purpose of this study is to find a direction for the future in physical education by using a revised Value Orientation Inventory to investigate the teachers' and students' value orientations. Based on these findings, results could identify a value-based philosophy for physical education curriculum innovation at the private university in Taiwan. ^ The subjects of this study included forty-two physical education teachers and ninety-four current students in five private universities in Taipei City, Taiwan. Value Orientation Inventory were developed by Ennis and Chen (1993), was used to assess subjects on five items five value orientations. VOI data were collected and analyzed by using T-test, ANOVA, and a set of special contrasts. ^ The findings of this study indicated that ninety-four percent of the private university students and physical education teachers made consistent curricular decisions within one or more of the value orientations. Teachers perceived Disciplinary Mastery (DM) and Learning Process (LP) value orientations as the most important values. Students perceived Ecological Integration (EI) and Disciplinary Mastery as the most important values. Both teachers and students placed Social Reconstruction value orientation as the lowest value. There were significant differences between teachers' and students' value orientations. Differences were found in DM, LP, and SA (Self-Actualization). There also were significant differences between teachers' and students' value orientation based on students' gender and year at university. These findings lead to the conclusion that private university students' values are incongruent with the physical education teachers' values. The finding suggests that unless physical education teachers address students' values on EI and SA, conflict may occur. ^

Tobacco use prevention education (TUPE) programs in the state of Florida: Teachers' perceptions of program structure and effectiveness

This study described teacher perceptions of TUPE program effectiveness in Florida in an attempt to improve programs by identifying factors that might influence teacher motivation and performance. Very little work has been done to examine how teachers' perceptions are related to the effectiveness of TUPE programs. A statewide survey provided information about how teachers' perceptions of program effectiveness are affected by variables such as: program structure, barriers, tobacco use norms, and training variables. Data were obtained from a telephone survey conducted in Florida as part of the Tobacco Pilot Project (TPP). The sample included 296 middle school teachers and 282 high school teachers as well as 193 middle school principals and 190 high school principals. Correlational and hierarchical regression analyses identified correlates and predictors of teachers' ratings of effectiveness. Results suggest that use of peer leaders, more frequent evaluations, a higher degree of parent involvement, fewer barriers, greater student interest, and lower tolerance for tobacco use were correlated with higher ratings of program effectiveness. Furthermore, student interest, peer, staff, and community tolerance norms, peer leaders, program evaluation, and parent involvement predicted middle school teachers' perceptions. Parent tolerance, student interest, number of barriers, and more frequent program evaluation predicted high school teachers' perceptions. In addition, middle school teachers who reported a lower number of factors negatively associated with teacher receptivity were more likely to view TUPE programs more favorably than teachers who reported a greater number of these risk factors. This relationship was not as robust among the high school teacher sample. Differences between the middle and high school sample were found in the magnitude and number of significant correlations, the proportion of variance accounted for by predictor variables, and the strength of the relationship between the number of factors negatively associated with teacher receptivity and teachers' perceptions of TUPE effectiveness. These findings highlighted the importance of the timing, program features, and the external environment for enhancing or minimizing teachers' ratings of TUPE program effectiveness. In conclusion, significant increases in TUPE teachers' self-efficacy will occur through the participation of peers, parents, staff, and community leaders in different aspects of TUPE programs. ^

Profile of Florida: Services in transitional housing programs for homeless women with children

Family homelessness is a disturbing social problem in the United States. This study was conducted to determine the scope of components that included services and programs available for homeless women with children in transitional housing programs in Florida and the effectiveness of these components in helping these women move towards independence. Primary data for this study were obtained through questionnaires sent to directors of homeless centers in Florida. Supportive services offered by these centers were evaluated to determine if they enabled homeless women with children to become self-sufficient. The findings of this research indicated that regardless of the size, length of participation, and scope of services provided by the centers, these women showed gains in their ability to move toward self-sufficiency. The results support the hypothesis that transitional housing programs have a positive effect on homeless women with children. ^

Graduate program culture and intention to persist: Working adults in cohort and non-cohort programs

Cohort programs have been instituted at many universities to accommodate the growing number of mature adult graduate students who pursue degrees while maintaining multiple commitments such as work and family. While it is estimated that as many as 40–60% of students who begin graduate study fail to complete degrees, it is thought that attrition may be even higher for this population of students. Yet, little is known about the impact of cohorts on the learning environment and whether cohort programs affect graduate student retention. Retention theory stresses the importance of the academic department, quality of faculty-student relationships and student involvement in the life of the academic community as critical determinants in students' decisions to persist to degree completion. However, students who are employed full-time typically spend little time on campus engaged in the learning environment. Using academic and social integration theory, this study examined the experiences of working adult graduate students enrolled in cohort (CEP) and non-cohort (non-CEP) programs and the influence of these experiences on intention to persist. The Graduate Program Context Questionnaire was administered to graduate students (N = 310) to examine measures of academic and social integration and intention to persist. Sample t tests and ANOVAs were conducted to determine whether differences in perceptions could be identified between cohort and non-cohort students. Multiple linear regression was used to identify variables that predict students' intention to persist. While there were many similarities, significant differences were found between CEP and non-CEP student groups on two measures. CEP students rated peer-student relationships higher and scored higher on the intention to persist measure than non-CEP students. The psychological integration measure, however, was the strongest predictor of intention to persist for both the CEP and non-CEP groups. This study supports the research literature which suggests that CEP programs encourage the development of peer-student relationships and promote students' commitment to persistence.

Evaluating the impacts of Bolsa Escola programs on student performance in Brazil

Since the 1980s, governments and organizations have promoted cash transfers in education as a tool for motivating elementary aged children to attend school. Oftentimes, the monthly payments supplemented the income a child would be making in the labor market. In Brazil, where these Bolsa or grant programs were pioneered, there has been much success in removing children from harsh labor conditions and increasing enrollment rates among the poorest families. However, the capacity of Bolsa Escola programs to meet other objectives, such as impacting educational outcomes and reducing incidences of poverty, continues to be examined. As these programs continue to be adopted globally, funding millions of children and families, evidence that demonstrates such success becomes ever more imperative. This study, therefore, examined evidence to determine whether Bolsa Escola programs have a significant impact on the academic performance of beneficiaries in Brazil. ^ Through the course of three data collection phases, multiple data sources were used to demonstrate the academic performance of fourth and eighth grade Brazilian students who were eligible to participate in either an NGO or the federal cash transfer program. MANOVAs were conducted separately for fourth and eighth grade data to determine if significant differences existed between measures of academic performance of Bolsa and non-Bolsa students. In every case and for both grade levels, significant effects were found for participation. ^ The limited qualitative data collected did not support drawing conclusions. Thematic analysis of the limited interview data pointed to possible dependency on Bolsa monthly stipends, and reallocation of responsibilities in the home in cases where children shifted from being breadwinners to students. ^

Examination of the impact of personality, social, and cognitive factors on the co-occurrence of health risk behaviors among multi-problem youth: The utility of an integrative framework

Research has identified a number of putative risk factors that places adolescents at incrementally higher risk for involvement in alcohol and other drug (AOD) use and sexual risk behaviors (SRBs). Such factors include personality characteristics such as sensation-seeking, cognitive factors such as positive expectancies and inhibition conflict as well as peer norm processes. The current study was guided by a conceptual perspective that support the notion that an integrative framework that includes multi-level factors has significant explanatory value for understanding processes associated with the co-occurrence of AOD use and sexual risk behavior outcomes. This study evaluated simultaneously the mediating role of AOD-sex related expectancies and inhibition conflict on antecedents of AOD use and SRBs including sexual sensation-seeking and peer norms for condom use.^ The sample was drawn from the Enhancing My Personal Options While Evaluating Risk (EMPOWER: Jonathan Tubman, PI), data set (N = 396; aged 12-18 years). Measures used in the study included Sexual Sensation-Seeking Scale, Inhibition Conflict for Condom Use, Risky Sex Scale. All relevant measures had well-documented psychometric properties. A global assessment of alcohol, drug use and sexual risk behaviors was used.^ Results demonstrated that AOD-sex related expectancies mediated the influence of sexual sensation-seeking on the co-occurrence of alcohol and other drug use and sexual risk behaviors. The evaluation of the integrative model also revealed that sexual sensation-seeking was positively associated with peer norms for condom use. Also, peer norms predicted inhibition conflict among this sample of multi-problem youth. ^ This dissertation research identified mechanisms of risk and protection associated with the co-occurrence of AOD use and SRBs among a multi-problem sample of adolescents receiving treatment for alcohol or drug use and related problems. This study is informative for adolescent-serving programs that address those individual and contextual characteristics that enhance treatment efficacy and effectiveness among adolescents receiving substance use and related problems services.^