Quantitative Aspekte der Anziehungskraft von Straßenbeleuchtungen auf die Emergenz aus nahegelegenen Gewässern (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Diptera: Simuliidae, Chironomidae, Empididae) unter Berücksichtigung der spektralen Emission ve

Beim Beobachten von nächtlichen Insektenschwärmen an Straßenbeleuchtungen kommt es zur Frage, inwieweit von einer Bedrohung eines geordneten Naturkreislaufes durch dieses Phänomen gesprochen werden kann. Am Beispiel der bedrohten Artenvielfalt aquatischer Insekten im Bereich anthropogen bedingt verschmutzter Fließgewässer wurde die Problematik umfassend untersucht. Die Freilandtests erstreckten sich von Sommer 1998 bis Sommer 2000. Die vorliegende Arbeit geht mehreren Fragestellungen nach:1. - Wie hoch ist der Anteil aquatischer Insekten, der von dem Ort seiner Emergenz aus von einer naheliegenden Straßenlaterne angezogen wird ?2. - Welcher Lampentyp lockt weniger Insekten an: OSRAM HQL (Weiß-Mischlicht) oder PHILIPPS SON (gelbes Licht) ?3. - Welche Wellenlängenbereiche des Lichts sind beim Anflug an die Lampe von besonderer Präferenz ? zu 1. - Aquatische Insekten wiesen kein einheitliches Verhalten im Anflug an künstliches Licht auf. In den Sommermonaten kam es bei einigen Insektengruppen, wie z.B. den Trichopteren, zu einem massenhaften Anflug an die eine, im Untersuchungsgebiet aufgestellte Straßenlaterne. In dieser Zeit ergaben sich im Mittelwert Fangzahlen in einer Nacht am Licht, die der Emergenz von 25 Metern Bachufer/72 Stunden entsprachen. Bei den Dipteren ergab der mittlere Wert eine Emergenz von knapp 10 Metern Uferlänge/72 Stunden. Aufgrund hoher Fangzahlen konnten folgende Ergebnisse auf Artniveau bei den Chironomiden erzielt werden. Bei den zehn häufigsten Arten aus Emergenz und Lichtfang zeigten sich starke Schwankungen: Der Fang am Licht entsprach im Maximum einer Schlupfrate von 61 Metern Ufer/ 72 Stunden bei einer Art, bei einer anderen Art wurde z.B. ein Lichtfang erzielt, der lediglich die Emergenz von 0,3 Metern/72 Stunden umfaßte.zu 2. - In dem ohne Lichtkonkurrenz stattfindenden Vergleich zwischen PHILIPPS SON 70W und OSRAM HQL 125W ergab sich eine Fangrelation von 1:1,6 (SON:HQL). Bei einem Parallelfang (30 Metern Abstand der Leuchten) mit SON/HQL flogen wesentlich mehr Tiere an die HQL: Hier betrug die Relation 1:3,97 (SON:HQL). Es fand somit bei Lichtkonkurrenz eine Abwanderung der Insekten zur 'attraktiveren' Lampe statt.zu 3. - Zuletzt wurde die Anlockwirkung dreier Farbspektren mit den Intensitätsmaxima einer Wellenlänge von 437nm, 579nm und 599nm getestet. 437nm war die in der HQL gemessene Intensitätsspitze im niedrigwelligen Bereich und nach verbreiteter Auffassung von besonderer Anlockwirkung. Der Wellenlängenbereich um 579nm stellte das Intensitätsmaximum der SON-Lampe dar (gelbes Licht); 599nm war als Alternative für anlockschwache Beleuchtungen ausgewählt worden. Hier ergab sich bei abwechselndem Fang (ohne Lichtkonkurrenz) eine Fangrelation von 1,8 : 3,4 : 1 (437nm : 579nm : 599nm).

Investigations of cooperative interactions in template induced crystallization processes and kinetic studies of nucleation and growth by small-angle neutron scattering

Zusammenfassung Um zu einem besseren Verständnis des Prozesses der Biomineralisation zu gelangen, muss das Zusammenwirken der verschiedenen Typen biologischer Makromoleküle, die am Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsprozess der Minerale beteiligt sind, berücksichtigt werden. In dieser Arbeit wird ein neues Modellsystem eingeführt, das aus einem SAM (self-assembled monolayer) mit verschiedenen Funktionalitäten und unterschiedlichen, gelösten Makromolekülen besteht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Kristallisation von Vaterit (CaCO3) sowie Strontianit (SrCO3) Nanodrähten der Präsenz von Polyacrylat in Kooperation mit einer COOH-funktionalisierten SAM-Oberfläche zugeschrieben werden kann. Die Kombination bestehend aus einer polaren SAM-Oberfläche und Polyacrylat fungiert als Grenzfläche für die Struktur dirigierende Kristallisation von Nanodraht-Kristallen. Weiter konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Phasenselektion von CaCO3 durch die kooperative Wechselwirkung zwischen einer SAM-Oberfläche und einem daran adsorbierten hb-Polyglycerol kontrolliert wird. Auch die Funktionalität einer SAM-Oberfläche in Gegenwart von Carboxymethyl-cellulose übt einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Phasenselektion des entstehenden Produktes aus. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Untersuchungen an CaCO3 zur homogenen Keimbildung, zur Nukleation in Gegenwart eines Proteins sowie auf Kolloiden, die als Template fungieren, mittels Kleinwinkel-Neutronenstreuung durchgeführt. Die homogene Kristallisation in wässriger Lösung stellte sich als ein mehrstufiger Prozess heraus. In Gegenwart des Eiweißproteins Ovalbumin konnten drei Phasen identifiziert werden, darunter eine anfänglich vorhandene amorphe sowie zwei kristalline Phasen.

Ground state properties of neutron-rich Mg isotopes

Studies in regions of the nuclear chart in which the model predictions of properties of nuclei fail can bring a better understanding of the strong interaction in the nuclear medium. To such regions belongs the so called "island of inversion" centered around Ne, Na and Mg isotopes with 20 neutrons in which unexpected ground-state spins, large deformations and dense low-energy spectra appear. This is a strong argument that the magic N = 20 is not a closed shell in this area. In this thesis investigations of isotope shifts of stable 24,25,26Mg, as well as spins and magnetic moments of short-lived 29,31Mg are presented. The successful studies were performed at the ISOLDE facility at CERN using collinear laser and beta-NMR spectroscopy techniques. The isotopes were investigated as single-charged ions in the 280-nm transition from the atomic ground state 2S1/2 to one of the two lowest excited states 2P1/2,3/2 using continuous wave laser beams. The isotope-shift measurements with fluorescence detection for the three stable isotopes show that it is feasible to perform the same studies on radioactive Mg isotopes up to the "island of inversion". This will allow to determine differences in the mean charge square radii and interpret them in terms of deformation. The high detection efficiency for beta particles and optical pumping close to saturation allowed to obtain very good beta-asymmetry signals for 29Mg and 31Mg with half-lives around 1 s and production yields about 10^5 ions/s. For this purpose the ions were implanted into a host crystal lattice. Such detection of the atomic resonances revealed their hyperfine structure, which gives the sign and a first estimate of the value of the magnetic moment. The nuclear magnetic resonance gave also their g-factors with the relative uncertainty smaller than 0.2 %. By combining the two techniques also the nuclear spin of both isotopes could be unambiguously determined. The measured spins and g-factors show that 29Mg with 17 neutrons lies outside the "island of inversion". On the other hand, 31Mg with 19 neutrons has an unexpected ground-state spin which can be explained only by promoting at least two neutrons across the N = 20 shell gap. This places the above nucleus inside the "island". However, modern shell-model approaches cannot predict this level as the ground state but only as one of the low-lying states, even though they reproduce very well the experimental g-factor. This indicates that modifications to the available interactions are required. Future measurements include isotope shift measurements on radioactive Mg isotopes and beta-NMR studies on 33Mg.

Size-selective investigations of spectral and emission properties of small particles and nanotubes

In dieser Arbeit wurde die Elektronenemission von Nanopartikeln auf Oberflächen mittels spektroskopischen Photoelektronenmikroskopie untersucht. Speziell wurden metallische Nanocluster untersucht, als selbstorganisierte Ensembles auf Silizium oder Glassubstraten, sowie ferner ein Metall-Chalcogenid (MoS2) Nanoröhren-Prototyp auf Silizium. Der Hauptteil der Untersuchungen war auf die Wechselwirkung von fs-Laserstrahlung mit den Nanopartikeln konzentriert. Die Energie der Lichtquanten war kleiner als die Austrittsarbeit der untersuchten Proben, so dass Ein-Photonen-Photoemission ausgeschlossen werden konnte. Unsere Untersuchungen zeigten, dass ausgehend von einem kontinuierlichen Metallfilm bis hin zu Clusterfilmen ein anderer Emissionsmechanismus konkurrierend zur Multiphotonen-Photoemission auftritt und für kleine Cluster zu dominieren beginnt. Die Natur dieses neuen Mechanismus` wurde durch verschiedenartige Experimente untersucht. Der Übergang von einem kontinuierlichen zu einem Nanopartikelfilm ist begleitet von einer Zunahme des Emissionsstroms von mehr als eine Größenordnung. Die Photoemissions-Intensität wächst mit abnehmender zeitlicher Breite des Laserpulses, aber diese Abhängigkeit wird weniger steil mit sinkender Partikelgröße. Die experimentellen Resultate wurden durch verschiedene Elektronenemissions-Mechanismen erklärt, z.B. Multiphotonen-Photoemission (nPPE), thermionische Emission und thermisch unterstützte nPPE sowie optische Feldemission. Der erste Mechanismus überwiegt für kontinuierliche Filme und Partikel mit Größen oberhalb von mehreren zehn Nanometern, der zweite und dritte für Filme von Nanopartikeln von einer Größe von wenigen Nanometern. Die mikrospektroskopischen Messungen bestätigten den 2PPE-Emissionsmechanismus von dünnen Silberfilmen bei „blauer“ Laseranregung (hν=375-425nm). Das Einsetzen des Ferminiveaus ist relativ scharf und verschiebt sich um 2hν, wenn die Quantenenergie erhöht wird, wogegen es bei „roter“ Laseranregung (hν=750-850nm) deutlich verbreitert ist. Es zeigte sich, dass mit zunehmender Laserleistung die Ausbeute von niederenergetischen Elektronen schwächer zunimmt als die Ausbeute von höherenergetischen Elektronen nahe der Fermikante in einem Spektrum. Das ist ein klarer Hinweis auf eine Koexistenz verschiedener Emissionsmechanismen in einem Spektrum. Um die Größenabhängigkeit des Emissionsverhaltens theoretisch zu verstehen, wurde ein statistischer Zugang zur Lichtabsorption kleiner Metallpartikel abgeleitet und diskutiert. Die Elektronenemissionseigenschaften bei Laseranregung wurden in zusätzlichen Untersuchungen mit einer anderen Anregungsart verglichen, der Passage eines Tunnelstroms durch einen Metall-Clusterfilm nahe der Perkolationsschwelle. Die elektrischen und Emissionseigenschaften von stromtragenden Silberclusterfilmen, welche in einer schmalen Lücke (5-25 µm Breite) zwischen Silberkontakten auf einem Isolator hergestellt wurden, wurden zum ersten Mal mit einem Emissions-Elektronenmikroskop (EEM) untersucht. Die Elektronenemission beginnt im nicht-Ohmschen Bereich der Leitungsstrom-Spannungskurve des Clusterfilms. Wir untersuchten das Verhalten eines einzigen Emissionszentrums im EEM. Es zeigte sich, dass die Emissionszentren in einem stromleitenden Silberclusterfilm Punktquellen für Elektronen sind, welche hohe Emissions-Stromdichten (mehr als 100 A/cm2) tragen können. Die Breite der Energieverteilung der Elektronen von einem einzelnen Emissionszentrum wurde auf etwa 0.5-0.6 eV abgeschätzt. Als Emissionsmechanismus wird die thermionische Emission von dem „steady-state“ heißen Elektronengas in stromdurchflossenen metallischen Partikeln vorgeschlagen. Größenselektierte, einzelne auf Si-Substraten deponierte MoS2-Nanoröhren wurden mit einer Flugzeit-basierten Zweiphotonen-Photoemissions-Spektromikroskopie untersucht. Die Nanoröhren-Spektren wiesen bei fs-Laser Anregung eine erstaunlich hohe Emissionsintensität auf, deutlich höher als die SiOx Substratoberfläche. Dagegen waren die Röhren unsichtbar bei VUV-Anregung bei hν=21.2 eV. Eine ab-initio-Rechnung für einen MoS2-Slab erklärt die hohe Intensität durch eine hohe Dichte freier intermediärer Zustände beim Zweiphotonen-Übergang bei hν=3.1 eV.

Search for K isomers in 252,254 No and 260 Sg and investigation of their nuclear structure

Study of K isomerism in the transfermium region around the deformed shells at N=152, Z=102, and N=162, Z=108 provides important information on the structure of heavy nuclei. Recent calculations suggest that the K-isomerism can enhance the stability of such nuclei against alpha emission and spontaneous fission. Nuclei showing K isomerism have neutron and proton orbitals with large spin projections on the symmetry axis which is due to multi quasiparticle states with aligned spins K. Quasi-particle states are formed by breaking pairs of nucleons and raising one or two nucleons in orbitals near the Fermi surface above the gap, forming high K (multi)quasi-particle states mainly at low excitation energies. Experimental examples are the recently studied two quasi-particle K isomers in 250,256-Fm, 254-No, and 270-Ds. Nuclei in this region, are produced with cross sections ranging from several nb up to µb, which are high enough for a detailed decay study. In this work, K isomerism in Sg and No isotopes was studied at the velocity filter SHIP of GSI, Darmstadt. The data were obtained by using a new data acquisition system which was developed and installed during this work. 252,254-No and 260-Sg were produced in fusion evaporation reactions of 48-Ca and 54-Cr projectiles with 206,208-Pb targets at beam energies close to the Coulomb barrier. A new K isomer was discovered in 252-No at excitation energy of 1.25 MeV, which decays to the ground state rotational band via gamma emission. It has a half-life of about 100 ms. The population of the isomeric state was about 20% of the ground state population. Detailed investigations were performed on 254-No in which two isomeric states (275 ms and 198 µs) were already discovered by R.-D. Herzberg, but due to the higher number of observed gamma decays more detailed information about the decay path of the isomers was obtained in the present work. In 260-Sg, we observed no statistically significant component with a half life different from that of the ground state. A comparison between experimental results and theoretical calculations of the single particle energies shows a fair agreement. The structure of the here studied nuclei is in particular important as single particle levels are involved which are relevant for the next shell closure expected to form the region of the shell stabilized superheavy elements at proton numbers 114, 120, or 126 and neutron number 184. K isomers, in particular, could be an ideal tool for the synthesis and study of these isotopes due to enhanced spontaneous fission life times which could result in higher alpha to spontaneous fission branching ratios and longer half lifes.

Mass measurements on neutron-deficient nuclides at SHIPTRAP and commissioning of a cryogenic narrow-band FT-ICR mass spectrometer

The dissertation presented here deals with high-precision Penning trap mass spectrometry on short-lived radionuclides. Owed to the ability of revealing all nucleonic interactions, mass measurements far off the line of ß-stability are expected to bring new insight to the current knowledge of nuclear properties and serve to test the predictive power of mass models and formulas. In nuclear astrophysics, atomic masses are fundamental parameters for the understanding of the synthesis of nuclei in the stellar environments. This thesis presents ten mass values of radionuclides around A = 90 interspersed in the predicted rp-process pathway. Six of them have been experimentally determined for the first time. The measurements have been carried out at the Penning-trap mass spectrometer SHIPTRAP using the destructive time-of-fligh ion-cyclotron-resonance (TOF-ICR) detection technique. Given the limited performance of the TOF-ICR detection when trying to investigate heavy/superheavy species with small production cross sections (σ< 1 μb), a new detection system is found to be necessary. Thus, the second part of this thesis deals with the commissioning of a cryogenic double-Penning trap system for the application of a highly-sensitive, narrow-band Fourier-transform ion-cyclotron-resonance (FT-ICR) detection technique. With the non-destructive FT-ICR detection method a single singly-charged trapped ion will provide the required information to determine its mass. First off-line tests of a new detector system based on a channeltron with an attached conversion dynode, of a cryogenic pumping barrier, to guarantee ultra-high vacuum conditions during mass determination, and of the detection electronics for the required single-ion sensitivity are reported.

Biogenic emission of halocarbons

Within this doctoral thesis, biogenic emissions of several globally relevant halocarbons (methyl chloride, methyl bromide, methyl iodide, dibromomethane, chloroform and bromoform) have been investigated in different environments. An airborne study was focused on the tropical rainforest ecosystem, while shipborne measurements investigated naturally occurring oceanic plankton blooms. Laboratory experiments using dried plant material were made to elucidate abiotic production mechanisms occurring in organic matter. Airborne measurements over the tropical rainforest of Suriname and French Guyana (3 - 6 °N, 51 - 59 °W) revealed net fluxes of 9.5 (± 3.8 2σ) µg m-2 h-1 methyl chloride and 0.35 (± 0.15 2σ) µg m-2 h-1 chloroform emitted in the long dry season (October) 2005. An extrapolation of these numbers to all tropical forests helped to narrow down the range of the recently discovered and poorly quantified methyl chloride source from tropical ecosystems. The value for methyl chloride obtained (1.5 (± 0.6 2σ) Tg yr-1) affirms that the contribution of the tropical forest ecosystem is the major source in the global budget of methyl chloride. The extrapolated global net chloroform flux from tropical forests (56 (± 23 2σ) Gg yr-1) is of minor importance (5 - 10 %) compared to the global sources. A source of methyl bromide from this region could not be verified. The abiotic formation of methyl chloride and methyl bromide from dead plant material was tested in a laboratory study. The release from plant tissue representative of grassland, deciduous forest, agricultural areas and coastal salt marshes (hay, ash, tomato and saltwort) has been monitored. Incubations at different temperatures (25 - 50 °C) revealed significant emissions even at ambient temperature, and that the emissions increased exponentially with temperature. The strength of the emission was found to be additionally dependent on the availability of halide and the methoxyl group within the plant tissue. However, high water content in the plant material was found to inhibit methyl halide emissions. The abiotic nature of the reaction yielding methyl halides was confirmed by its high activation energy calculated via Arrhenius plots. Shipborne measurements of the atmospheric mixing ratios of methyl chloride, methyl bromide, methyl iodide, dibromomethane and bromoform have been conducted along a South Atlantic transect from the 27.01. - 05.02.2007 to characterize halocarbon emissions from a large-scale natural algae bloom encountered off the coast of Argentina. Mixing ratios of methyl chloride and methyl bromide were not significantly affected by the occurrence of the phytoplankton bloom. Emissions of methyl iodide, dibromomethane and bromoform showed pronounced mixing ratio variations, triggered by phytoplankton abundance. Methyl iodide was strongly correlated with dimethyl sulfide throughout the sampled region. A new technique combining satellite derived biomass marker (chlorophyll a) data with back trajectory analysis was successfully used to attribute variations in mixing ratios to air masses, which recently passed over areas of enhanced biological production.

Nuclear charge radius determination of 7,10 Be and the one-neutron halo nucleus 11 Be

The only nuclear model independent method for the determination of nuclear charge radii of short-lived radioactive isotopes is the measurement of the isotope shift. For light elements (Z < 10) extremely high accuracy in experiment and theory is required and was only reached for He and Li so far. The nuclear charge radii of the lightest elements are of great interest because they have isotopes which exhibit so-called halo nuclei. Those nuclei are characterized by a a very exotic nuclear structure: They have a compact core and an area of less dense nuclear matter that extends far from this core. Examples for halo nuclei are 6^He, 8^He, 11^Li and 11^Be that is investigated in this thesis. Furthermore these isotopes are of interest because up to now only for such systems with a few nucleons the nuclear structure can be calculated ab-initio. In the Institut für Kernchemie at the Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz two approaches with different accuracy were developed. The goal of these approaches was the measurement of the isotope shifts between (7,10,11)^Be^+ and 9^Be^+ in the D1 line. The …first approach is laser spectroscopy on laser cooled Be^+ ions that are trapped in a linear Paul trap. The accessible accuracy should be in the order of some 100 kHz. In this thesis two types of linear Paul traps were developed for this purpose. Moreover, the peripheral experimental setup was simulated and constructed. It allows the efficient deceleration of fast ions with an initial energy of 60 keV down to some eV and an effcient transport into the ion trap. For one of the Paul traps the ion trapping could already be demonstrated, while the optical detection of captured 9^Be^+ ions could not be completed, because the development work was delayed by the second approach. The second approach uses the technique of collinear laser spectroscopy that was already applied in the last 30 years for measuring isotope shifts of plenty of heavier isotopes. For light elements (Z < 10), it was so far not possible to reach the accuracy that is required to extract information about nuclear charge radii. The combination of collinear laser spectroscopy with the most modern methods of frequency metrology …finally permitted the …first-time determination of the nuclear charge radii of (7,10)^Be and the one neutron halo nucleus 11^Be at the COLLAPS experiment at ISOLDE/ CERN. In the course of the work reported in this thesis it was possible to measure the absolute transition frequencies and the isotope shifts in the D1 line for the Be isotopes mentioned above with an accuracy of better than 2 MHz. Combination with the most recent calculations of the mass effect allowed the extraction of the nuclear charge radii of (7,10,11)^Be with an relative accuracy better than 1%. The nuclear charge radius decreases from 7^Be continuously to 10^Be and increases again for 11^Be. This result is compared with predictions of ab-initio nuclear models which reproduce the observed trend. Particularly the "Greens Function Monte Carlo" and the "Fermionic Molecular Dynamic" model show very good agreement.

Investigation of the dipole response of nickel isotopes in the presence of a high-frequency electromagnetic field

The electric dipole response of neutron-rich nickel isotopes has been investigated using the LAND setup at GSI in Darmstadt (Germany). Relativistic secondary beams of 56−57Ni and 67−72Ni at approximately 500 AMeV have been generated using projectile fragmentation of stable ions on a 4 g/cm2 Be target and subsequent separation in the magnetic dipole fields of the FRagment Separator (FRS). After reaching the LAND setup in Cave C, the radioactive ions were excited electromagnetically in the electric field of a Pb target. The decay products have been measured in inverse kinematics using various detectors. Neutron-rich 67−69Ni isotopes decay by the emission of neutrons, which are detected in the LAND detector. The present analysis concentrates on the (gamma,n) and (gamma,2n) channels in these nuclei, since the proton and three-neutron thresholds are unlikely to be reached considering the virtual photon spectrum for nickel ions at 500 AMeV. A measurement of the stable 58Ni isotope is used as a benchmark to check the accuracy of the present results with previously published data. The measured (gamma,n) and (gamma,np) channels are compared with an inclusive photoneutron measurement by Fultz and coworkers, which are consistent within the respective errors. The measured excitation energy distributions of 67−69Ni contain a large portion of the Giant Dipole Resonance (GDR) strength predicted by the Thomas-Reiche-Kuhn energy-weighted sum rule, as well as a significant amount of low-lying E1 strength, that cannot be attributed to the GDR alone. The GDR distribution parameters are calculated using well-established semi-empirical systematic models, providing the peak energies and widths. The GDR strength is extracted from the chi-square minimization of the model GDR to the measured data of the (gamma,2n) channel, thereby excluding any influence of eventual low-lying strength. The subtraction of the obtained GDR distribution from the total measured E1 strength provides the low-lying E1 strength distribution, which is attributed to the Pygmy Dipole Resonance (PDR). The extraction of the peak energy, width and strength is performed using a Gaussian function. The minimization of trial Gaussian distributions to the data does not converge towards a sharp minimum. Therefore, the results are presented by a chi-square distribution as a function of all three Gaussian parameters. Various predictions of PDR distributions exist, as well as a recent measurement of the 68Ni pygmy dipole-resonance obtained by virtual photon scattering, to which the present pygmy dipole-resonance distribution is also compared.

Investigation of a superthermal ultracold neutron source based on a solid deuterium converter for the TRIGA Mainz reactor

Research in fundamental physics with the free neutron is one of the key tools for testing the Standard Model at low energies. Most prominent goals in this field are the search for a neutron electric dipole moment (EDM) and the measurement of the neutron lifetime. Significant improvements of the experimental performance using ultracold neutrons (UCN) require reduction of both systematic and statistical errors.rnThe development and construction of new UCN sources based on the superthermal concept is therefore an important step for the success of future fundamental physics with ultracold neutrons. rnSignificant enhancement of today available UCN densities strongly correlates with an efficient use of an UCN converter material. The UCN converter here is to be understood as a medium which reduces the velocity of cold neutrons (CN, velocity of about 600 m/s) to the velocity of UCN (velocity of about 6 m/s).rnSeveral big research centers around the world are presently planning or constructing new superthermal UCN sources, which are mainly based on the use of either solid deuterium or superfluid helium as UCN converter.rnThanks to the idea of Yu.Pokotilovsky, there exists the opportunity to build competitive UCN sources also at small research reactors of the TRIGA type. Of course these smaller facilities don't promise high UCN densities of several 1000 UCN/cm³, but they are able to provide densities around 100 UCN/cm³ for experiments.rnIn the context of this thesis, it was possible to demonstrate succesfully the feasibility of a superthermal UCN source at the tangential beamport C of the research reactor TRIGA Mainz. Based on a prototype for the future UCN source at the Forschungs-Neutronenquelle Heinz Maier-Leibnitz (FRMII) in munich, which was planned and built in collaboration with the Technical University of Munich, further investigations and improvements were done and are presented in this thesis. rnIn parallel, a second UCN source for the radial beamport D was designed and built. The comissioning of this new source is foreseen in spring 2010.rnAt beamport D with its higher thermal neutron flux, it should be possible to increase the available UCN densities of 4 UCN/cm³ by minimum one order of magnitude.

The electron antineutrino angular correlation coefficient a in free neutron decay: Testing the standard model with the aSPECT-spectrometer

The beta-decay of free neutrons is a strongly over-determined process in the Standard Model (SM) of Particle Physics and is described by a multitude of observables. Some of those observables are sensitive to physics beyond the SM. For example, the correlation coefficients of the involved particles belong to them. The spectrometer aSPECT was designed to measure precisely the shape of the proton energy spectrum and to extract from it the electron anti-neutrino angular correlation coefficient "a". A first test period (2005/ 2006) showed the “proof-of-principles”. The limiting influence of uncontrollable background conditions in the spectrometer made it impossible to extract a reliable value for the coefficient "a" (publication: Baessler et al., 2008, Europhys. Journ. A, 38, p.17-26). A second measurement cycle (2007/ 2008) aimed to under-run the relative accuracy of previous experiments (Stratowa et al. (1978), Byrne et al. (2002)) da/a =5%. I performed the analysis of the data taken there which is the emphasis of this doctoral thesis. A central point are background studies. The systematic impact of background on a was reduced to da/a(syst.)=0.61 %. The statistical accuracy of the analyzed measurements is da/a(stat.)=1.4 %. Besides, saturation effects of the detector electronics were investigated which were initially observed. These turned out not to be correctable on a sufficient level. An applicable idea how to avoid the saturation effects will be discussed in the last chapter.

Measurement of the proton recoil spectrum in neutron beta decay with the spectrometer aSPECT : study of systematic effects

Precision measurements of observables in neutron beta decay address important open questions of particle physics and cosmology. In this thesis, a measurement of the proton recoil spectrum with the spectrometer aSPECT is described. From this spectrum the antineutrino-electron angular correlation coefficient a can be derived. In our first beam time at the FRM II in Munich, background instabilities prevented us from presenting a new value for a. In the latest beam time at the ILL in Grenoble, the background has been reduced sufficiently. As a result of the data analysis, we identified and fixed a problem in the detector electronics which caused a significant systematic error. The aim of the latest beam time was a new value for a with an error well below the present literature value of 4%. A statistical accuracy of about 1.4% was reached, but we could only set upper limits on the correction of the problem in the detector electronics, too high to determine a meaningful result. This thesis focused on the investigation of different systematic effects. With the knowledge of the systematics gained in this thesis, we are able to improve aSPECT to perform a 1% measurement of a in a further beam time.

Boron determination in biological samples - Intercomparison of three analytical methods to assist development of a treatment protocol for neoplastic diseases of the liver with Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

Die Bor-Neuroneneinfang-Therapie (engl.: Boron Neutron Capture Therapy, BNCT) ist eine indirekte Strahlentherapie, welche durch die gezielte Freisetzung von dicht ionisierender Strahlung Tumorzellen zerstört. Die freigesetzten Ionen sind Spaltfragmente einer Kernreaktion, bei welcher das Isotop 10B ein niederenergetisches (thermisches) Neutron einfängt. Das 10B wird durch ein spezielles Borpräparat in den Tumorzellen angereichert, welches selbst nicht radioaktiv ist. rnAn der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz wurde die Forschung für die Anwendung eines klinischen Behandlungsprotokolls durch zwei Heilversuche bei Patienten mit kolorektalen Lebermetastasen an der Universität Pavia, Italien, angeregt, bei denen die Leber außerhalb des Körpers in einem Forschungsreaktor bestrahlt wurde. Als erster Schritt wurde in Kooperation verschiedener universitärer Institute eine klinische Studie zur Bestimmung klinisch relevanter Parameter wie der Borverteilung in verschiedenen Geweben und dem pharmakokinetischen Aufnahmeverhalten des Borpräparates initiiert.rnDie Borkonzentration in den Gewebeproben wurde hinsichtlich ihrer räumlichen Verteilung in verschiedenen Zellarealen bestimmt, um mehr über das Aufnahmeverhalten der Zellen für das BPA im Hinblick auf ihre biologischen Charakteristika zu erfahren. Die Borbestimung wurde per Quantitative Neutron Capture Radiography, Prompt Gamma Activation Analysis und Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy parallel zur histologischen Analyse des Gewebes durchgeführt. Es war möglich zu zeigen, dass in Proben aus Tumorgewebe und aus tumorfreiem Gewebe mit unterschiedlichen morphologischen Eigenschaften eine sehr heterogene Borverteilung vorliegt. Die Ergebnisse der Blutproben werden für die Erstellung eines pharmakokinetischen Modells verwendet und sind in Übereinstimmung mit existierenden pharmakokinetische Modellen. Zusätzlich wurden die Methoden zur Borbestimmung über speziell hergestellte Referenzstandards untereinander verglichen. Dabei wurde eine gute Übereinstimmung der Ergebnisse festgestellt, ferner wurde für alle biologischen Proben Standardanalyseprotokolle erstellt.rnDie bisher erhaltenen Ergebnisse der klinischen Studie sind vielversprechend, lassen aber noch keine endgültigen Schlussfolgerungen hinsichtlich der Wirksamkeit von BNCT für maligne Lebererkrankungen zu. rn

Messung des elektrischen Neutron-Formfaktors in der Reaktion 3 He(e,e'n)pp bei Q 2 = 1.58 (GeV/c) 2

Die elektromagnetischen Nukleon-Formfaktoren sind fundamentale Größen, welche eng mit der elektromagnetischen Struktur der Nukleonen zusammenhängen. Der Verlauf der elektrischen und magnetischen Sachs-Formfaktoren G_E und G_M gegen Q^2, das negative Quadrat des Viererimpulsübertrags im elektromagnetischen Streuprozess, steht über die Fouriertransformation in direkter Beziehung zu der räumlichen Ladungs- und Strom-Verteilung in den Nukleonen. Präzise Messungen der Formfaktoren über einen weiten Q^2-Bereich werden daher für ein quantitatives Verständnis der Nukleonstruktur benötigt.rnrnDa es keine freien Neutrontargets gibt, gestaltet sich die Messung der Neutron-Formfaktoren schwierig im Vergleich zu der Messung am Proton. Konsequenz daraus ist, dass die Genauigkeit der vorhandenen Daten von Neutron-Formfaktoren deutlich geringer ist als die von Formfaktoren des Protons; auch der vermessene Q^2-Bereich ist kleiner. Insbesondere der elektrische Sachs-Formfaktor des Neutrons G_E^n ist schwierig zu messen, da er aufgrund der verschwindenden Nettoladung des Neutrons im Verhältnis zu den übrigen Nukleon-Formfaktoren sehr klein ist. G_E^n charakterisiert die Ladungsverteilung des elektrisch neutralen Neutrons und ist damit besonders sensitiv auf die innere Struktur des Neutrons.rnrnIn der hier vorgestellten Arbeit wurde G_E^n aus Strahlhelizitätsasymmetrien in der quasielastischen Streuung vec{3He}(vec{e}, e'n)pp bei einem Impulsübertrag von Q^2 = 1.58 (GeV/c)^2 bestimmt. Die Messung fand in Mainz an der Elektronbeschleunigeranlage Mainzer Mikrotron innerhalb der A1-Kollaboration im Sommer 2008 statt. rnrnLongitudinal polarisierte Elektronen mit einer Energie von 1.508 GeV wurden an einem polarisierten ^3He-Gastarget, das als effektives, polarisiertes Neutrontarget diente, gestreut. Die gestreuten Elektronen wurden in Koinzidenz mit den herausgeschlagenen Neutronen detektiert; die Elektronen wurden in einem magnetischen Spektrometer nachgewiesen, durch den Nachweis der Neutronen in einer Matrix aus Plastikszintillatoren wurde der Beitrag der quasielastischen Streuung am Proton unterdrückt.rnrnAsymmetrien des Wirkungsquerschnitts bezüglich der Elektronhelizität sind bei Orientierung der Targetpolarisation in der Streuebene und senkrecht zum Impulsübertrag sensitiv auf G_E^n / G_M^n; mittels deren Messung kann G_E^n bestimmt werden, da der magnetische Formfaktor G_M^n mit vergleichsweise hoher Präzision bekannt ist. Zusätzliche Messungen der Asymmetrie bei einer Polarisationsorientierung parallel zum Impulsübertrag wurden genutzt, um systematische Fehler zu reduzieren.rnrnFür die Messung inklusive statistischem (stat) und systematischem (sys) Fehler ergab sich G_E^n = 0.0244 +/- 0.0057_stat +/- 0.0016_sys.

Global modeling of pollutant transport and deposition from anthropogenic emission hot spots on global scale

Urban centers significantly contribute to anthropogenic air pollution, although they cover only a minor fraction of the Earth's land surface. Since the worldwide degree of urbanization is steadily increasing, the anthropogenic contribution to air pollution from urban centers is expected to become more substantial in future air quality assessments. The main objective of this thesis was to obtain a more profound insight in the dispersion and the deposition of aerosol particles from 46 individual major population centers (MPCs) as well as the regional and global influence on the atmospheric distribution of several aerosol types. For the first time, this was assessed in one model framework, for which the global model EMAC was applied with different representations of aerosol particles. First, in an approach with passive tracers and a setup in which the results depend only on the source location and the size and the solubility of the tracers, several metrics and a regional climate classification were used to quantify the major outflow pathways, both vertically and horizontally, and to compare the balance between pollution export away from and pollution build-up around the source points. Then in a more comprehensive approach, the anthropogenic emissions of key trace species were changed at the MPC locations to determine the cumulative impact of the MPC emissions on the atmospheric aerosol burdens of black carbon, particulate organic matter, sulfate, and nitrate. Ten different mono-modal passive aerosol tracers were continuously released at the same constant rate at each emission point. The results clearly showed that on average about five times more mass is advected quasi-horizontally at low levels than exported into the upper troposphere. The strength of the low-level export is mainly determined by the location of the source, while the vertical transport is mainly governed by the lifting potential and the solubility of the tracers. Similar to insoluble gas phase tracers, the low-level export of aerosol tracers is strongest at middle and high latitudes, while the regions of strongest vertical export differ between aerosol (temperate winter dry) and gas phase (tropics) tracers. The emitted mass fraction that is kept around MPCs is largest in regions where aerosol tracers have short lifetimes; this mass is also critical for assessing the impact on humans. However, the number of people who live in a strongly polluted region around urban centers depends more on the population density than on the size of the area which is affected by strong air pollution. Another major result was that fine aerosol particles (diameters smaller than 2.5 micrometer) from MPCs undergo substantial long-range transport, with about half of the emitted mass being deposited beyond 1000 km away from the source. In contrast to this diluted remote deposition, there are areas around the MPCs which experience high deposition rates, especially in regions which are frequently affected by heavy precipitation or are situated in poorly ventilated locations. Moreover, most MPC aerosol emissions are removed over land surfaces. In particular, forests experience more deposition from MPC pollutants than other land ecosystems. In addition, it was found that the generic treatment of aerosols has no substantial influence on the major conclusions drawn in this thesis. Moreover, in the more comprehensive approach, it was found that emissions of black carbon, particulate organic matter, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides from MPCs influence the atmospheric burden of various aerosol types very differently, with impacts generally being larger for secondary species, sulfate and nitrate, than for primary species, black carbon and particulate organic matter. While the changes in the burdens of sulfate, black carbon, and particulate organic matter show an almost linear response for changes in the emission strength, the formation of nitrate was found to be contingent upon many more factors, e.g., the abundance of sulfuric acid, than only upon the strength of the nitrogen oxide emissions. The generic tracer experiments were further extended to conduct the first risk assessment to obtain the cumulative risk of contamination from multiple nuclear reactor accidents on the global scale. For this, many factors had to be taken into account: the probability of major accidents, the cumulative deposition field of the radionuclide cesium-137, and a threshold value that defines contamination. By collecting the necessary data and after accounting for uncertainties, it was found that the risk is highest in western Europe, the eastern US, and in Japan, where on average contamination by major accidents is expected about every 50 years.