Renormalization of fermion mixing

Precision measurements of phenomena related to fermion mixing require the inclusion of higher order corrections in the calculation of corresponding theoretical predictions. For this, a complete renormalization scheme for models that allow for fermion mixing is highly required. The correct treatment of unstable particles makes this task difficult and yet, no satisfactory and general solution can be found in the literature. In the present work, we study the renormalization of the fermion Lagrange density with Dirac and Majorana particles in models that involve mixing. The first part of the thesis provides a general renormalization prescription for the Lagrangian, while the second one is an application to specific models. In a general framework, using the on-shell renormalization scheme, we identify the physical mass and the decay width of a fermion from its full propagator. The so-called wave function renormalization constants are determined such that the subtracted propagator is diagonal on-shell. As a consequence of absorptive parts in the self-energy, the constants that are supposed to renormalize the incoming fermion and the outgoing antifermion are different from the ones that should renormalize the outgoing fermion and the incoming antifermion and not related by hermiticity, as desired. Instead of defining field renormalization constants identical to the wave function renormalization ones, we differentiate the two by a set of finite constants. Using the additional freedom offered by this finite difference, we investigate the possibility of defining field renormalization constants related by hermiticity. We show that for Dirac fermions, unless the model has very special features, the hermiticity condition leads to ill-defined matrix elements due to self-energy corrections of external legs. In the case of Majorana fermions, the constraints for the model are less restrictive. Here one might have a better chance to define field renormalization constants related by hermiticity. After analysing the complete renormalized Lagrangian in a general theory including vector and scalar bosons with arbitrary renormalizable interactions, we consider two specific models: quark mixing in the electroweak Standard Model and mixing of Majorana neutrinos in the seesaw mechanism. A counter term for fermion mixing matrices can not be fixed by only taking into account self-energy corrections or fermion field renormalization constants. The presence of unstable particles in the theory can lead to a non-unitary renormalized mixing matrix or to a gauge parameter dependence in its counter term. Therefore, we propose to determine the mixing matrix counter term by fixing the complete correction terms for a physical process to experimental measurements. As an example, we calculate the decay rate of a top quark and of a heavy neutrino. We provide in each of the chosen models sample calculations that can be easily extended to other theories.

Airborne measurements of the spectral surface albedo over Morocco and its influence on the radiative forcing of Saharan dust

This PhD thesis is embedded into the DFG research project SAMUM, the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment which was initiated with the goal to investigate the optical and microphysical properties of Saharan dust aerosol, its transport, and its radiative effect. This work described the deployment of the Spectral Modular Airborne Radiation Measurement SysTem (SMART-Albedometer) in SAMUM after it has been extended in its spectral range. The SAMUM field campaign was conducted in May and June 2006 in south-eastern Morocco. At two ground stations and aboard two aircraft various measurements in an almost pure plume of Saharan dust were conducted. Airborne measurements of the spectral upwelling and downwelling irradiance are used to derive the spectral surface albedo in its typical range in the experiment region. Typical spectral types are presented and compared to the surface albedo derived from MISR satellite data. Furthermore, the radiative forcing of the observed Saharan dust is estimated in dependence on the surface albedo and its regional variations. A strong dependence of the radiative forcing not only on the surface albedo, but also on the optical properties of the dust aerosol is observed. It is unique to SAMUM that all these influential parameters have been measured in near-source Saharan dust, which made the calculations shown in this work possible.

EPR spectroscopic investigation of membrane protein structure and folding on light harvesting complex LHCIIb

Structure and folding of membrane proteins are important issues in molecular and cell biology. In this work new approaches are developed to characterize the structure of folded, unfolded and partially folded membrane proteins. These approaches combine site-directed spin labeling and pulse EPR techniques. The major plant light harvesting complex LHCIIb was used as a model system. Measurements of longitudinal and transversal relaxation times of electron spins and of hyperfine couplings to neighboring nuclei by electron spin echo envelope modulation(ESEEM) provide complementary information about the local environment of a single spin label. By double electron electron resonance (DEER) distances in the nanometer range between two spin labels can be determined. The results are analyzed in terms of relative water accessibilities of different sites in LHCIIb and its geometry. They reveal conformational changes as a function of micelle composition. This arsenal of methods is used to study protein folding during the LHCIIb self assembly and a spatially and temporally resolved folding model is proposed. The approaches developed here are potentially applicable for studying structure and folding of any protein or other self-assembling structure if site-directed spin labeling is feasible and the time scale of folding is accessible to freeze-quench techniques.

Detecting interfaces in a parabolic-elliptic problem from surface measurements

Assuming that the heat capacity of a body is negligible outside certain inclusions the heat equation degenerates to a parabolic-elliptic interface problem. In this work we aim to detect these interfaces from thermal measurements on the surface of the body. We deduce an equivalent variational formulation for the parabolic-elliptic problem and give a new proof of the unique solvability based on Lions’s projection lemma. For the case that the heat conductivity is higher inside the inclusions, we develop an adaptation of the factorization method to this time-dependent problem. In particular this shows that the locations of the interfaces are uniquely determined by boundary measurements. The method also yields to a numerical algorithm to recover the inclusions and thus the interfaces. We demonstrate how measurement data can be simulated numerically by a coupling of a finite element method with a boundary element method, and finally we present some numerical results for the inverse problem.

Investigation of the nuclear matter density distributions of the exotic 12 Be, 14 Be and 8 B nuclei by elastic proton scattering in inverse kinematics

The proton-nucleus elastic scattering at intermediate energies is a well-established method for the investigation of the nuclear matter distribution in stable nuclei and was recently applied also for the investigation of radioactive nuclei using the method of inverse kinematics. In the current experiment, the differential cross sections for proton elastic scattering on the isotopes $^{7,9,10,11,12,14}$Be and $^8$B were measured. The experiment was performed using the fragment separator at GSI, Darmstadt to produce the radioactive beams. The main part of the experimental setup was the time projection ionization chamber IKAR which was simultaneously used as hydrogen target and a detector for the recoil protons. Auxiliary detectors for projectile tracking and isotope identification were also installed. As results from the experiment, the absolute differential cross sections d$sigma$/d$t$ as a function of the four momentum transfer $t$ were obtained. In this work the differential cross sections for elastic p-$^{12}$Be, p-$^{14}$Be and p-$^{8}$B scattering at low $t$ ($t leq$~0.05~(GeV/c)$^2$) are presented. The measured cross sections were analyzed within the Glauber multiple-scattering theory using different density parameterizations, and the nuclear matter density distributions and radii of the investigated isotopes were determined. The analysis of the differential cross section for the isotope $^{14}$Be shows that a good description of the experimental data is obtained when density distributions consisting of separate core and halo components are used. The determined {it rms} matter radius is $3.11 pm 0.04 pm 0.13$~fm. In the case of the $^{12}$Be nucleus the results showed an extended matter distribution as well. For this nucleus a matter radius of $2.82 pm 0.03 pm 0.12$~fm was determined. An interesting result is that the free $^{12}$Be nucleus behaves differently from the core of $^{14}$Be and is much more extended than it. The data were also compared with theoretical densities calculated within the FMD and the few-body models. In the case of $^{14}$Be, the calculated cross sections describe the experimental data well while, in the case of $^{12}$Be there are discrepancies in the region of high momentum transfer. Preliminary experimental results for the isotope $^8$B are also presented. An extended matter distribution was obtained (though much more compact as compared to the neutron halos). A proton halo structure was observed for the first time with the proton elastic scattering method. The deduced matter radius is $2.60pm 0.02pm 0.26$~fm. The data were compared with microscopic calculations in the frame of the FMD model and reasonable agreement was observed. The results obtained in the present analysis are in most cases consistent with the previous experimental studies of the same isotopes with different experimental methods (total interaction and reaction cross section measurements, momentum distribution measurements). For future investigation of the structure of exotic nuclei a universal detector system EXL is being developed. It will be installed at the NESR at the future FAIR facility where higher intensity beams of radioactive ions are expected. The usage of storage ring techniques provides high luminosity and low background experimental conditions. Results from the feasibility studies of the EXL detector setup, performed at the present ESR storage ring, are presented.

First Ramsey-type mass measurements with ISOLTRAP and design studies of the new PENTATRAP project

Der Einsatz von Penningfallen in der Massenspektrometrie hat zu einem einmaligen Genauigkeitssprung geführt. Dadurch wurden Massenwerte verschiedenster Atome zu wichtigen Eingangsparametern bei immer mehr physikalischen Fragestellungen. Die Massenspektrometrie mit Hilfe von Penningfallen basiert auf der Bestimmung der freien Zyklotronfrequenz eines Ions in einem homogenen Magnetfeld νc=qB/(2πm). Sie wird mit Flugzeitmethode (TOF-ICR) bestimmt, wobei eine relative Massenungenauigkeit δm/m von wenigen 10^-9 bei Nukliden mit Lebensdauern von <500 ms erreicht wird. Dies wurde durch die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals in der Penningfallen-Massenspektrometrie eingesetzten Ramsey-Methode möglich. Dabei werden zeitlich separierte, oszillierenden Feldern zur resonanten Ionenanregung genutzt, um die Frequenzmessung durch die Flugzeitmethode zu verbessern. Damit wurden am Penningfallenmassenspektrometer ISOLTRAP an ISOLDE/CERN die Massen der Nuklide 26,27Al und 38,39Ca bestimmt. Alle Massen wurden in die „Atomic Mass Evaluation“ eingebettet. Die Massenwerte von 26Al und 38Ca dienten insbesondere zu Tests des Standardmodells. Um mit Massenwerten fundamentale Symmetrien oder die Quantenelektrodynamik (QED) in extremen Feldern zu testen wurde ein neues Penningfallenprojekt (PENTATRAP) für hochpräzise Massenmessungen an hochgeladenen Ionen konzipiert. In dieser Doktorarbeit wurde vornehmlich die Entwicklung der Penningfallen betrieben. Eine Neuerung bei Penningfallenexperimenten ist dabei die permanente Beobachtung des Magnetfeldes B und seiner zeitlichen Fluktuationen durch so genannte „Monitorfallen“.

Oligomerisation, localisation and interaction of the sensor histidine kinases DcuS and CitA in Escherichia coli

The two-component system DcuSR of Escherichia coli regulates gene expression of anaerobic fumarate respiration and aerobic C4-dicarboxylate uptake. C4-dicarboxylates and citrate are perceived by the periplasmic domain of the membrane-integral sensor histidine kinase DcuS. The signal is transduced across the membrane by phosphorylation of DcuS and of the response regulator DcuR, resulting in activation of DcuR and transcription of the target genes.rnIn this work, the oligomerisation of full-length DcuS was studied in vivo and in vitro. DcuS was genetically fused to derivatives of the green fluorescent protein (GFP), enabling fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements to detect protein-protein interactions in vivo. FRET measurements were also performed with purified His6-DcuS after labelling with fluorescent dyes and reconstitution into liposomes to study oligomerisation of DcuS in vitro. In vitro and in vivo fluorescence resonance energy transfer showed the presence of oligomeric DcuS in the membrane, which was independent of the presence of effector. Chemical crosslinking experiments allowed clear-cut evaluation of the oligomeric state of DcuS. The results showed that detergent-solubilised His6-DcuS was mainly monomeric and demonstrated the presence of tetrameric DcuS in proteoliposomes and in bacterial membranes.rnThe sensor histidine kinase CitA is part of the two-component system CitAB of E. coli, which is structurally related to DcuSR. CitAB regulates gene expression of citrate fermentation in response to external citrate. The sensor kinases DcuS and CitA were fused with an enhanced variant of the yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) and expressed in E. coli under the control of an arabinose-inducible promoter. The subcellular localisation of DcuS-YFP and CitA-YFP within the cell membrane was studied by means of confocal laser fluorescence microscopy. Both fusion proteins were found to accumulate at the cell poles. The polar accumulation was slightly increased in the presence of the stimulus fumarate or citrate, respectively, but independent of the expression level of the fusion proteins. Cell fractionation demonstrated that polar accumulation was not related to inclusion bodies formation. The degree of polar localisation of DcuS-YFP was similar to that of the well-characterised methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs), but independent of their presence. To enable further investigations on the function of the polar localisation of DcuS under physiological conditions, the sensor kinase was genetically fused to the flavin-based fluorescent protein Bs2 which shows fluorescence under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The resulting dcuS-bs2 gene fusion was inserted into the chromosome of various E. coli strains.rnFurthermore, a protein-protein interaction between the related sensor histidine kinases DcuS and CitA, regulating common metabolic pathways, was detected via expression studies under anaerobic conditions in the presence of citrate and by in vivo FRET measurements.

Nuclear charge radii of light isotopes based on frequency comb measurements

Optical frequency comb technology has been used in this work for the first time to investigate the nuclear structure of light radioactive isotopes. Therefore, three laser systems were stabilized with different techniques to accurately known optical frequencies and used in two specialized experiments. Absolute transition frequency measurements of lithium and beryllium isotopes were performed with accuracy on the order of 10^(−10). Such a high accuracy is required for the light elements since the nuclear volume effect has only a 10^(−9) contribution to the total transition frequency. For beryllium, the isotope shift was determined with an accuracy that is sufficient to extract information about the proton distribution inside the nucleus. A Doppler-free two-photon spectroscopy on the stable lithium isotopes (6,7)^Li was performed in order to determine the absolute frequency of the 2S → 3S transition. The achieved relative accuracy of 2×10^(−10) is improved by one order of magnitude compared to previous measurements. The results provide an opportunity to determine the nuclear charge radius of the stable and short-lived isotopes in a pure optical way but this requires an improvement of the theoretical calculations by two orders of magnitude. The second experiment presented here was performed at ISOLDE/CERN, where the absolute transition frequencies of the D1 and D2 lines in beryllium ions for the isotopes (7,9,10,11)^Be were measured with an accuracy of about 1 MHz. Therefore, an advanced collinear laser spectroscopy technique involving two counter-propagating frequency-stabilized laser beams with a known absolute frequency was developed. The extracted isotope shifts were combined with recent accurate mass shift calculations and the root-mean square nuclear charge radii of (7,10)^Be and the one-neutron halo nucleus 11^Be were determined. Obtained charge radii are decreasing from 7^Be to 10^Be and increasing again for 11^Be. While the monotone decrease can be explained by a nucleon clustering inside the nucleus, the pronounced increase between 10^Be and 11^Be can be interpreted as a combination of two contributions: the center-of-mass motion of the 10^Be core and a change of intrinsic structure of the core. To disentangle these two contributions, the results from nuclear reaction measurements were used and indicate that the center-of-mass motion is the dominant effect. Additionally, the splitting isotope shift, i.e. the difference in the isotope shifts between the D1 and D2 fine structure transitions, was determined. This shows a good consistency with the theoretical calculations and provides a valuable check of the beryllium experiment.

Reactive halogen compounds in the marine boundary layer: method developments and field measurements

Reactive halogen compounds are known to play an important role in a wide variety of atmospheric processes such as atmospheric oxidation capacity and coastal new particle formation. In this work, novel analytical approaches combining diffusion denuder/impinger sampling techniques with gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric (GC–MS) determination are developed to measure activated chlorine compounds (HOCl and Cl2), activated bromine compounds (HOBr, Br2, BrCl, and BrI), activated iodine compounds (HOI and ICl), and molecular iodine (I2). The denuder/GC–MS methods have been used to field measurements in the marine boundary layer (MBL). High mixing ratios (of the order of 100 ppt) of activated halogen compounds and I2 are observed in the coastal MBL in Ireland, which explains the ozone destruction observed. The emission of I2 is found to correlate inversely with tidal height and correlate positively with the levels of O3 in the surrounding air. In addition the release is found to be dominated by algae species compositions and biomass density, which proves the “hot-spot” hypothesis of atmospheric iodine chemistry. The observations of elevated I2 concentrations substantially support the existence of higher concentrations of littoral iodine oxides and thus the connection to the strong ultra-fine particle formation events in the coastal MBL.

Solid-state NMR on columnar supramolecular structures

The present work deals with the characterisation of three columnar self-assembled systems, that is, benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamides, a peripherally thioalkyl-substituted phthalocyanine, and several oligo-(p-phenylenevinylene)s. In order to probe the supramolecular organisation solid-state NMR has been used as the main technique, supported by X-ray measurements, theoretical methods, and thermal analysis. rnrnBenzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamides (BTAs) turned out to be well suited model compounds to study various fundamental supramolecular interactions, such as π-π-interactions, hydrogen bonding, as well as dynamic and steric effects of attached side chains. Six BTAs have been investigated in total, five with a CO-centred amide group bearing different side chains and one with an inverted N-centred amide group. The physical properties of these BTAs have been investigated as a function of temperature. The results indicated that in case of the CO-centred BTAs the stability of the columnar mesophase depends strongly on the nature of the side chains. Further experiments revealed a coplanar orientation of adjacent BTA molecules in the columnar assembly of CO-centred BTAs, whereas the N-centred BTA, showed a deviating not fully coplanar arrangement. These differences were ascribed to distinct hydrogen bonding schemes, involving a parallel alignment of hydrogen bonds in case of CO-centred BTAs and an antiparallel alignment in case of the N-centred counterpart.rnrn The fundamental insights of the supramolecular organisation of BTAs could be partially adapted to an octa-substituted phthalocyanine with thiododecyl moieties. Solid-state NMR in combination with chemical shift calculations determined a tilted herringbone arrangement of phthalocyanine rings in the crystalline phase as well as in the mesophase. Moreover, 1H NMR measurements in the mesophase of this compound suggested an axial rotation of molecules, which is inhibited in the crystalline phase.rnrnAs a third task, the supramolecular assembly of oligo-(p-phenylenevinylene)s of varying length and with different polar head groups have been investigated by a combined X-ray and solid-state NMR study. The results revealed a columnar structure formation of these compounds, being promoted by phase separation of alkyl side chains and aromatic rigid rods. In this system solid-state NMR yielded meaningful insight into the isotropisation process of butoxy and 2-S-methylbutoxy substituted oligo-(p-phenylenevinylene) rods.rn

Das wasserlösliche Chlorophyll-Protein (WSCP): biochemische Charakterisierung und Untersuchungen zur biologischen Funktion

Das WSCP (water-soluble chlorophyll protein) der Brassicaceen ist das einzig bekannte Chlorophyll-bindende Protein, welches keine Carotinoide bindet. Es ist ein wasserlösliches, ca. 80 kDa großes Homotetramer mit 1-4 gebundenen Chlorophyllen. Das Protein ist äußerst stabil und vermag die gebundenen Chlorophylle vor Photooxidation zu schützen. Seine Funktion in der Pflanze ist bis heute ein Rätsel und sollte in dieser Arbeit zusammen mit seinen biochemischen Eigenschaften weiter aufgeklärt werden. Es wurden Versuche durchgeführt mit nativem und rekombinantem WSCP aus Blumenkohl (BoWSCP bzw. BoWSCPhis) und aus Arabidopsis thaliana (AtWSCP bzw. AtWSCPhis). Die Expressionsausbeute von BoWSCPhis konnte verbessert werden und zusätzlich wurde die Rekonstitutionsmethode für das rekombinante WSCP optimiert, sodass das pigmentierte Protein mit hoher Ausbeute und großer Reinheit gewonnen werden konnte. Zudem wurde ein neuer WSCP-Klon hergestellt, mBoWSCPhis, der in seiner Sequenz dem maturen nativen BoWSCP entspricht und weitaus weniger Aggregationsprobleme zeigte als BoWSCPhis. Weiterführende Versuche zur Stabilität und dem Oligomerisierungsgrad von WSCP haben die neue Erkenntnis erbracht, dass die Phytolschwänze der von WSCP gebundenen Chlorophylle zwar essentiell sind für die Stabilität von WSCP-Oligomeren, nicht aber für die Oligomerisierung selbst, wie es in der Literatur bislang postuliert wurde. Zusätzlich zu ihrer außerordentlichen Hitzestabilität erwiesen sich die Chl-WSCP-Komplexe als stabil in einem breiten pH-Spektrum. AtWSCPhis besaß eine vergleichbare Stabilität, und auch das Oligomerisierungsverhalten zeigte Ähnlichkeiten zu BoWSCPhis. Im Rahmen einer Forschungskooperation mit dem Institut für Optik und Atomare Physik der TU Berlin wurden zeitaufgelöste Absorptionsspektren sowie Tieftemperatur-Fluoreszenzspektren an Chl-WSCP-Komplexen gemessen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten deutlich, dass die WSCP-gebundenen Chlorophylle excitonisch gekoppelt sind und wiesen zudem auf unterschiedliche Chl-Bindungsmodi hin. Aufgrund seines einfachen Aufbaus und seines geringen Chlorophyllgehalts hat sich WSCP bei diesen Versuchen als sehr geeignetes Modellsystem erwiesen, um Messungen zur Chlorophyllbindung mit Vorhersagen aus theoretischen Modellen zu vergleichen. Bei den Experimenten zur biologischen Funktion wurden einerseits Arabidopsis thaliana WSCP-„knock-out“-Pflanzen unter verschiedenen Bedingungen charakterisiert, andererseits wurden Experimente mit rekombinantem WSCP durchgeführt, um eine mögliche Interaktion mit anderen Proteinen zu detektieren. Die vegetativen Stadien der Mutante zeigten keinen Phänotyp; das native Arabidopsis-WSCP konnte später bei der Wildtyp-Pflanze ausschließlich in jungen Schoten lokalisiert werden, was eine Erklärung hierfür lieferte. Rekombinantes WSCP konnte Chlorophylle aus nativem LHCII entfernen, eine Interaktion mit Chlorophyllase konnte jedoch nicht nachgewiesen werden; daher konnte auch die Hypothese, WSCP sei ein Chl-Carrier beim Chl-Abbau, nicht untermauert werden. Bei den durchgeführten Enzym-Assays wurde eine geringfügige Inhibition der Cysteinprotease Papain beobachtet, aber keine Inhibition der Serinprotease Trypsin, obwohl Blumenkohl-WSCP N-proximal das Motiv der Künitz-Proteaseinhibitoren besitzt. Die Frage nach der biologischen Funktion von WSCP bleibt also weiterhin offen.

The construction of TRIGA-TRAP and direct high-precision Penning trap mass measurements on rare-earth elements and americium

Nuclear masses are an important quantity to study nuclear structure since they reflect the sum of all nucleonic interactions. Many experimental possibilities exist to precisely measure masses, out of which the Penning trap is the tool to reach the highest precision. Moreover, absolute mass measurements can be performed using carbon, the atomic-mass standard, as a reference. The new double-Penning trap mass spectrometer TRIGA-TRAP has been installed and commissioned within this thesis work, which is the very first experimental setup of this kind located at a nuclear reactor. New technical developments have been carried out such as a reliable non-resonant laser ablation ion source for the production of carbon cluster ions and are still continued, like a non-destructive ion detection technique for single-ion measurements. Neutron-rich fission products will be available by the reactor that are important for nuclear astrophysics, especially the r-process. Prior to the on-line coupling to the reactor, TRIGA-TRAP already performed off-line mass measurements on stable and long-lived isotopes and will continue this program. The main focus within this thesis was on certain rare-earth nuclides in the well-established region of deformation around N~90. Another field of interest are mass measurements on actinoids to test mass models and to provide direct links to the mass standard. Within this thesis, the mass of 241-Am could be measured directly for the first time.

Merkmalsbezogene Verifikation hochaufgelöster Niederschlagsvorhersagen für Deutschland

Die Verifikation bewertet die Güte von quantitativen Niederschlagsvorhersagen(QNV) gegenüber Beobachtungen und liefert Hinweise auf systematische Modellfehler. Mit Hilfe der merkmals-bezogenen Technik SAL werden simulierte Niederschlagsverteilungen hinsichtlich (S)truktur, (A)mplitude und (L)ocation analysiert. Seit einigen Jahren werden numerische Wettervorhersagemodelle benutzt, mit Gitterpunktabständen, die es erlauben, hochreichende Konvektion ohne Parametrisierung zu simulieren. Es stellt sich jetzt die Frage, ob diese Modelle bessere Vorhersagen liefern. Der hoch aufgelöste stündliche Beobachtungsdatensatz, der in dieser Arbeit verwendet wird, ist eine Kombination von Radar- und Stationsmessungen. Zum einem wird damit am Beispiel der deutschen COSMO-Modelle gezeigt, dass die Modelle der neuesten Generation eine bessere Simulation des mittleren Tagesgangs aufweisen, wenn auch mit zu geringen Maximum und etwas zu spätem Auftreten. Im Gegensatz dazu liefern die Modelle der alten Generation ein zu starkes Maximum, welches erheblich zu früh auftritt. Zum anderen wird mit dem neuartigen Modell eine bessere Simulation der räumlichen Verteilung des Niederschlags, durch eine deutliche Minimierung der Luv-/Lee Proble-matik, erreicht. Um diese subjektiven Bewertungen zu quantifizieren, wurden tägliche QNVs von vier Modellen für Deutschland in einem Achtjahreszeitraum durch SAL sowie klassischen Maßen untersucht. Die höher aufgelösten Modelle simulieren realistischere Niederschlagsverteilungen(besser in S), aber bei den anderen Komponenten tritt kaum ein Unterschied auf. Ein weiterer Aspekt ist, dass das Modell mit der gröbsten Auf-lösung(ECMWF) durch den RMSE deutlich am besten bewertet wird. Darin zeigt sich das Problem des ‚Double Penalty’. Die Zusammenfassung der drei Komponenten von SAL liefert das Resultat, dass vor allem im Sommer das am feinsten aufgelöste Modell (COSMO-DE) am besten abschneidet. Hauptsächlich kommt das durch eine realistischere Struktur zustande, so dass SAL hilfreiche Informationen liefert und die subjektive Bewertung bestätigt. rnIm Jahr 2007 fanden die Projekte COPS und MAP D-PHASE statt und boten die Möglich-keit, 19 Modelle aus drei Modellkategorien hinsichtlich ihrer Vorhersageleistung in Südwestdeutschland für Akkumulationszeiträume von 6 und 12 Stunden miteinander zu vergleichen. Als Ergebnisse besonders hervorzuheben sind, dass (i) je kleiner der Gitter-punktabstand der Modelle ist, desto realistischer sind die simulierten Niederschlags-verteilungen; (ii) bei der Niederschlagsmenge wird in den hoch aufgelösten Modellen weniger Niederschlag, d.h. meist zu wenig, simuliert und (iii) die Ortskomponente wird von allen Modellen am schlechtesten simuliert. Die Analyse der Vorhersageleistung dieser Modelltypen für konvektive Situationen zeigt deutliche Unterschiede. Bei Hochdrucklagen sind die Modelle ohne Konvektionsparametrisierung nicht in der Lage diese zu simulieren, wohingegen die Modelle mit Konvektionsparametrisierung die richtige Menge, aber zu flächige Strukturen realisieren. Für konvektive Ereignisse im Zusammenhang mit Fronten sind beide Modelltypen in der Lage die Niederschlagsverteilung zu simulieren, wobei die hoch aufgelösten Modelle realistischere Felder liefern. Diese wetterlagenbezogene Unter-suchung wird noch systematischer unter Verwendung der konvektiven Zeitskala durchge-führt. Eine erstmalig für Deutschland erstellte Klimatologie zeigt einen einer Potenzfunktion folgenden Abfall der Häufigkeit dieser Zeitskala zu größeren Werten hin auf. Die SAL Ergebnisse sind für beide Bereiche dramatisch unterschiedlich. Für kleine Werte der konvektiven Zeitskala sind sie gut, dagegen werden bei großen Werten die Struktur sowie die Amplitude deutlich überschätzt. rnFür zeitlich sehr hoch aufgelöste Niederschlagsvorhersagen gewinnt der Einfluss der zeitlichen Fehler immer mehr an Bedeutung. Durch die Optimierung/Minimierung der L Komponente von SAL innerhalb eines Zeitfensters(+/-3h) mit dem Beobachtungszeit-punkt im Zentrum ist es möglich diese zu bestimmen. Es wird gezeigt, dass bei optimalem Zeitversatz die Struktur und Amplitude der QNVs für das COSMO-DE besser werden und damit die grundsätzliche Fähigkeit des Modells die Niederschlagsverteilung realistischer zu simulieren, besser gezeigt werden kann.

Production of Z bosons in proton-proton collisions at root out s = 10 TeV: Expectations for early measurements at the ATLAS experiment

The production of the Z boson in proton-proton collisions at the LHC serves as a standard candle at the ATLAS experiment during early data-taking. The decay of the Z into an electron-positron pair gives a clean signature in the detector that allows for calibration and performance studies. The cross-section of ~ 1 nb allows first LHC measurements of parton density functions. In this thesis, simulations of 10 TeV collisions at the ATLAS detector are studied. The challenges for an experimental measurement of the cross-section with an integrated luminositiy of 100 pb−1 are discussed. In preparation for the cross-section determination, the single-electron efficiencies are determined via a simulation based method and in a test of a data-driven ansatz. The two methods show a very good agreement and differ by ~ 3% at most. The ingredients of an inclusive and a differential Z production cross-section measurement at ATLAS are discussed and their possible contributions to systematic uncertainties are presented. For a combined sample of signal and background the expected uncertainty on the inclusive cross-section for an integrated luminosity of 100 pb−1 is determined to 1.5% (stat) +/- 4.2% (syst) +/- 10% (lumi). The possibilities for single-differential cross-section measurements in rapidity and transverse momentum of the Z boson, which are important quantities because of the impact on parton density functions and the capability to check for non-pertubative effects in pQCD, are outlined. The issues of an efficiency correction based on electron efficiencies as function of the electron’s transverse momentum and pseudorapidity are studied. A possible alternative is demonstrated by expanding the two-dimensional efficiencies with the additional dimension of the invariant mass of the two leptons of the Z decay.

Phasenverhalten, Kristallisation und Morphologie ladungsstabilisierter kolloidaler Mischungen

Die vorliegende Arbeit möchte die Anwendbarkeit ladungsstabilisierter kolloidaler Systeme als Modellsysteme für fundamentale Fragen der Festkörperphysik und Thermodynamik auf binäre Mischungen erweitern. In diesem Kontext untersucht sie das Phasenverhalten und mit ihm im Zusammenhang stehende Eigenschaften von binären Mischungen ladungsstabilisierter, sphärischer kolloidaler Partikel in wässriger Suspension. Da das Verhalten hartkugelähnlicher Systeme durch hohe Fremdionenkonzentrationen bereits gut bekannt ist, konzentriert sich diese Arbeit auf sehr langreichweitig repulsive Systeme unter deionisierten Bedingungen. Neben etablierten Methoden der Mikroskopie und statischer Lichtstreuung zur Phasendiagrammsbestimmung wird auch die Beobachtung der zeitabhängigen Entwicklung des Schermoduls verwendet, um eine langsame Erstarrungskinetik zu studieren. Es werden insbesondere Mischungen aus Komponenten unterschiedlicher Größe und Ladung der Größenverhältnisse 0,9, 0,82, 0,57, 0,39 und 0,37 untersucht. Diese zeigen in dieser Reihenfolge Phasendiagramme mit spindelförmigem fluid/kristallinen Koexistenzbereich wie auch azeotrope und eutektische Phasendiagramme. Die Strukturuntersuchungen aus der statischen Lichtstreuung stehen in praktisch allen Fällen im Einklang mit ungeordneten bcc- Substitutionskristallen, was über Modelle zu Schermodulmessungen bestätigt wird. Für das spindelförmige System wird ein überraschend weiter Koexistenzbereich beobachtet, wie er nicht von der Theorie erwartet wird. Die Lage, aber nicht die Form des Solidus stimmt quantitativ mit Simulationsvorhersagen zu einkomponentigen Systemen überein. Für das eutektische System bei einem Radienverhältnis von 0,57 wird der Einfluss der Schwerkraft auf das Phasenverhalten und die Erstarrungskinetik untersucht. Die der Kristallisation der kleineren Majoritätskomponente vorgelagerte gravitativ unterstützte Entmischung begünstigt hier die Verfestigung. Beobachtet werden Morphologien, die aus anderen Systemen bekannt sind (Facetten, Dendriten), wie auch erstmals eine kollumnare eutektische Morphologie. Aus den Ergebnissen wird der erste umfassende Überblick über das Phasenverhalten deionisierter Mischungen ladungsstabilisierter, sphärischer Partikel erstellt, die eine Diskussion der Daten anderer Autoren und unserer Gruppe über fluid-fluider Phasenseparation und einem System mit oberem azeotropen Punkt mit einschließt. Die meisten metallspezifischen Phasendiagrammtypen können mit ladungsstabilisierten kolloidalen Partikeln reproduziert werden. Die langreichweitig wechselwirkenden Partikel zeigt eine wesentlich verbesserte substitutionelle Mischbarkeit im Vergleich mit Hartkugel- und Metallsystemen. Das Größenverhältnis der sphärischen Partikel nimmt dabei die bestimmende Rolle für den Phasendiagrammtyp ein.