Simulating short lived carbonaceous compounds with an atmospheric chemistry general circulation model

Ein neu entwickeltes globales Atmosphärenchemie- und Zirkulationsmodell (ECHAM5/MESSy1) wurde verwendet um die Chemie und den Transport von Ozonvorläufersubstanzen zu untersuchen, mit dem Schwerpunkt auf Nichtmethankohlenwasserstoffen. Zu diesem Zweck wurde das Modell durch den Vergleich der Ergebnisse mit Messungen verschiedenen Ursprungs umfangreich evaluiert. Die Analyse zeigt, daß das Modell die Verteilung von Ozon realistisch vorhersagt, und zwar sowohl die Menge als auch den Jahresgang. An der Tropopause gibt das Modell den Austausch zwischen Stratosphäre und Troposphäre ohne vorgeschriebene Flüsse oder Konzentrationen richtig wieder. Das Modell simuliert die Ozonvorläufersubstanzen mit verschiedener Qualität im Vergleich zu den Messungen. Obwohl die Alkane vom Modell gut wiedergeben werden, ergibt sich einige Abweichungen für die Alkene. Von den oxidierten Substanzen wird Formaldehyd (HCHO) richtig wiedergegeben, während die Korrelationen zwischen Beobachtungen und Modellergebnissen für Methanol (CH3OH) und Aceton (CH3COCH3) weitaus schlechter ausfallen. Um die Qualität des Modells im Bezug auf oxidierte Substanzen zu verbessern, wurden einige Sensitivitätsstudien durchgeführt. Diese Substanzen werden durch Emissionen/Deposition von/in den Ozean beeinflußt, und die Kenntnis über den Gasaustausch mit dem Ozean ist mit großen Unsicherheiten behaftet. Um die Ergebnisse des Modells ECHAM5/MESSy1 zu verbessern wurde das neue Submodell AIRSEA entwickelt und in die MESSy-Struktur integriert. Dieses Submodell berücksichtigt den Gasaustausch zwischen Ozean und Atmosphäre einschließlich der oxidierten Substanzen. AIRSEA, welches Informationen über die Flüssigphasenkonzentration des Gases im Oberflächenwasser des Ozeans benötigt wurde ausgiebig getestet. Die Anwendung des neuen Submodells verbessert geringfügig die Modellergebnisse für Aceton und Methanol, obwohl die Verwendung einer vorgeschriebenen Flüssigphasenkonzentration stark den Erfolg der Methode einschränkt, da Meßergebnisse nicht in ausreichendem Maße zu Verfügung stehen. Diese Arbeit vermittelt neue Einsichten über organische Substanzen. Sie stellt die Wichtigkeit der Kopplung zwischen Ozean und Atmosphäre für die Budgets vieler Gase heraus.

Structuring of polymer surface by evaporation of sessile microdrops

In this thesis, we investigated the evaporation of sessile microdroplets on different solid substrates. Three major aspects were studied: the influence of surface hydrophilicity and heterogeneity on the evaporation dynamics for an insoluble solid substrate, the influence of external process parameters and intrinsic material properties on microstructuring of soluble polymer substrates and the influence of an increased area to volume ratio in a microfluidic capillary, when evaporation is hindered. In the first part, the evaporation dynamics of pure sessile water drops on smooth self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of thiols or disulfides on gold on mica was studied. With increasing surface hydrophilicity the drop stayed pinned longer. Thus, the total evaporation time of a given initial drop volume was shorter, since the drop surface, through which the evaporation occurs, stays longer large. Usually, for a single drop the volume decreased linearly with t1.5, t being the evaporation time, for a diffusion-controlled evaporation process. However, when we measured the total evaporation time, ttot, for multiple droplets with different initial volumes, V0, we found a scaling of the form V0 = attotb. The more hydrophilic the substrate was, the more showed the scaling exponent a tendency to an increased value up to 1.6. This can be attributed to an increasing evaporation rate through a thin water layer in the vicinity of the drop. Under the assumption of a constant temperature at the substrate surface a cooling of the droplet and thus a decreased evaporation rate could be excluded as a reason for the different scaling exponent by simulations performed by F. Schönfeld at the IMM, Mainz. In contrast, for a hairy surface, made of dialkyldisulfide SAMs with different chain lengths and a 1:1 mixture of hydrophilic and hydrophobic end groups (hydroxy versus methyl group), the scaling exponent was found to be ~ 1.4. It increased to ~ 1.5 with increasing hydrophilicity. A reason for this observation can only be speculated: in the case of longer hydrophobic alkyl chains the formation of an air layer between substrate and surface might be favorable. Thus, the heat transport to the substrate might be reduced, leading to a stronger cooling and thus decreased evaporation rate. In the second part, the microstructuring of polystyrene surfaces by drops of toluene, a good solvent, was investigated. For this a novel deposition technique was developed, with which the drop can be deposited with a syringe. The polymer substrate is lying on a motorized table, which picks up the pendant drop by an upward motion until a liquid bridge is formed. A consecutive downward motion of the table after a variable delay, i.e. the contact time between drop and polymer, leads to the deposition of the droplet, which can evaporate. The resulting microstructure is investigated in dependence of the processes parameters, i.e. the approach and the retraction speed of the substrate and the delay between them, and in dependence of the intrinsic material properties, i.e. the molar mass and the type of the polymer/solvent system. The principal equivalence with the microstructuring by the ink-jet technique was demonstrated. For a high approach and retraction speed of 9 mm/s and no delay between them, a concave microtopology was observed. In agreement with the literature, this can be explained by a flow of solvent and the dissolved polymer to the rim of the pinned droplet, where polymer is accumulated. This effect is analogue to the well-known formation of ring-like stains after the evaporation of coffee drops (coffee-stain effect). With decreasing retraction speed down to 10 µm/s the resulting surface topology changes from concave to convex. This can be explained with the increasing dissolution of polymer into the solvent drop prior to the evaporation. If the polymer concentration is high enough, gelation occurs instead of a flow to the rim and the shape of the convex droplet is received. With increasing delay time from below 0 ms to 1s the depth of the concave microwells decreases from 4.6 µm to 3.2 µm. However, a convex surface topology could not be obtained, since for longer delay times the polymer sticks to the tip of the syringe. Thus, by changing the delay time a fine-tuning of the concave structure is accomplished, while by changing the retraction speed a principal change of the microtopolgy can be achieved. We attribute this to an additional flow inside the liquid bridge, which enhanced polymer dissolution. Even if the pendant drop is evaporating about 30 µm above the polymer surface without any contact (non-contact mode), concave structures were observed. Rim heights as high as 33 µm could be generated for exposure times of 20 min. The concave structure exclusively lay above the flat polymer surface outside the structure even after drying. This shows that toluene is taken up permanently. The increasing rim height, rh, with increasing exposure time to the solvent vapor obeys a diffusion law of rh = rh0  tn, with n in the range of 0.46 ~ 0.65. This hints at a non-Fickian swelling process. A detailed analysis showed that the rim height of the concave structure is modulated, unlike for the drop deposition. This is due to the local stress relaxation, which was initiated by the increasing toluene concentration in the extruded polymer surface. By altering the intrinsic material parameters i.e. the polymer molar mass and the polymer/solvent combination, several types of microstructures could be formed. With increasing molar mass from 20.9 kDa to 1.44 MDa the resulting microstructure changed from convex, to a structure with a dimple in the center, to concave, to finally an irregular structure. This observation can be explained if one assumes that the microstructuring is dominated by two opposing effects, a decreasing solubility with increasing polymer molar mass, but an increasing surface tension gradient leading to instabilities of Marangoni-type. Thus, a polymer with a low molar mass close or below the entanglement limit is subject to a high dissolution rate, which leads to fast gelation compared to the evaporation rate. This way a coffee-rim like effect is eliminated early and a convex structure results. For high molar masses the low dissolution rate and the low polymer diffusion might lead to increased surface tension gradients and a typical local pile-up of polymer is found. For intermediate polymer masses around 200 kDa, the dissolution and evaporation rate are comparable and the typical concave microtopology is found. This interpretation was supported by a quantitative estimation of the diffusion coefficient and the evaporation rate. For a different polymer/solvent system, polyethylmethacrylate (PEMA)/ethylacetate (EA), exclusively concave structures were found. Following the statements above this can be interpreted with a lower dissolution rate. At low molar masses the concentration of PEMA in EA most likely never reaches the gelation point. Thus, a concave instead of a convex structure occurs. At the end of this section, the optically properties of such microstructures for a potential application as microlenses are studied with laser scanning confocal microscopy. In the third part, the droplet was confined into a glass microcapillary to avoid evaporation. Since here, due to an increased area to volume ratio, the surface properties of the liquid and the solid walls became important, the influence of the surface hydrophilicity of the wall on the interfacial tension between two immiscible liquid slugs was investigated. For this a novel method for measuring the interfacial tension between the two liquids within the capillary was developed. This technique was demonstrated by measuring the interfacial tensions between slugs of pure water and standard solvents. For toluene, n-hexane and chloroform 36.2, 50.9 and 34.2 mN/m were measured at 20°C, which is in a good agreement with data from the literature. For a slug of hexane in contact with a slug of pure water containing ethanol in a concentration range between 0 and 70 (v/v %), a difference of up to 6 mN/m was found, when compared to commercial ring tensiometry. This discrepancy is still under debate.

Surface layer formation in polymer melts and in solutions

In this work the surface layer formation in polymer melts and in polymer solutions have been investigated with the atomic force microscope (AFM). In polymer melts, the formation of an immobile surface layer results in a steric repulsion, which can be measured by the AFM. From former work it is know, that polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) forms a stable surface layer for molecular weights above 12 kDa. In the present thesis, polyisoprene (PI) was investigated apart from PDMS, by a)measuring the steric surface interactions and b)measuring the surface slip in hydrodynamic experiments. If a polymer flows over a surface, the flow velocity at the surface is larger then zero. If case of a surface layer formation the flow plane changes to the top of the adsorbed layer and the surface slip is reduced to zero. By measuring the surface slip in hydrodynamic experiments, it is therefore possible to determine the presence of a stable surface layer. The results show no stable repulsion for PI and only a small decrease of the surface slip. This indicates that PI does not form a stable surface layer, but is only adsorbed weakly to the surface. Furthermore for 8 kDa PDMS the timescale of the formation of a surface layer was investigated by changing themaximal force the tip applied to the surface. With a repulsive force present, applying a higher force than 15 nN resulted in a destruction of the surface layer, indicated by attractive forces. Reducing the applied force below 15 nN then resulted in an increase of the repulsion to the former state during one minute, thus indicating that a surface layer can be formed within one minute even under the influence of continuous measurements. As a next step, mixtures of two PDMS homopolymers with different chain lengths have been investigated. The aim was to verify theoretical predictions that shorter chains should predominate at the surface due to their smaller loss in conformational entropy. The measurements where done in dependence of the volume fractions of short and long chain PMDS. The results confirmed the short chain dominance for all mixtures with less then 90 vol.% long chain PDMS. Surface layer formation in solution was investigated for superplasticizers which are industrially used as an additive to cement. They change the surface interaction between the cement grains from attractive to repulsive and the freshlymixed cement paste therefore becomes liquid. The aimin this part of the thesis was, to investigate cement particle interactions in a close to real environment. Therefore calcium silicate hydrate phases have been precipitated onto an AFM tip and onto a calcite crystal and the interaction between these surfaces have beenmeasured with and without addition of superplasticizers. The measurements confirmed the change from attraction to repulsion upon addition of superplasticizers. The repulsive steric interaction increased with the length of the sidechain of the superplasticizer, and the dependence of the range of the steric interactions on the sidechain length indicated that the sidechains are in a coiled conformation.

Interactions between the hydrological cycle and atmospheric chemistry

The land-atmosphere exchange of atmospheric trace gases is sensitive to meteorological conditions and climate change. It contributes in turn to the atmospheric radiative forcing through its effects on tropospheric chemistry. The interactions between the hydrological cycle and atmospheric processes are intricate and often involve different levels of feedbacks. The Earth system model EMAC is used in this thesis to assess the direct role of the land surface components of the terrestrial hydrological cycle in the emissions, deposition and transport of key trace gases that control tropospheric chemistry. It is also used to examine its indirect role in changing the tropospheric chemical composition through the feedbacks between the atmospheric and the terrestrial branches of the hydrological cycle. Selected features of the hydrological cycle in EMAC are evaluated using observations from different data sources. The interactions between precipitation and the water vapor column, from the atmospheric branch of the hydrological cycle, and evapotranspiration, from its terrestrial branch, are assessed specially for tropical regions. The impacts of changes in the land surface hydrology on surface exchanges and the oxidizing chemistry of the atmosphere are assessed through two sensitivity simulations. In the first, a new parametrization for rainfall interception in the densely vegetated areas in the tropics is implemented, and its effects are assessed. The second study involves the application of a soil moisture forcing that replaces the model calculated soil moisture. Both experiments have a large impact on the local hydrological cycle, dry deposition of soluble and insoluble gases, emissions of isoprene through changes in surface temperature and the Planetary Boundary Layer height. Additionally the soil moisture forcing causes changes in local vertical transport and large-scale circulation. The changes in trace gas exchanges affect the oxidation capacity of the atmosphere through changes in OH, O$_3$, NO$_x$ concentrations.

Inorganic-organic hybrid polymers: Solution-processible coating materials for defined surface functionalization

A new class of inorganic-organic hybrid polymers could successfully been prepared by the combination of different polymerization techniques. The access to a broad range of organic polymers incorporated into the hybrid polymer was realized using two independent approaches.rnIn the first approach a functional poly(silsesquioxane) (PSSQ) network was pre-formed, which was capable to initiate a controlled radical polymerization to graft organic vinyl-type monomers from the PSSQ precursor. As controlled radical polymerization techniques atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), as well as reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization could be used after defined tuning of the PSSQ precursor either toward a PSSQ macro-initiator or to a PSSQ macro-chain-transfer-agent. The polymerization pathway, consisting of polycondensation of trialkoxy-silanes followed by grafting-from polymerization of different monomers, allowed synthesis of various functional hybrid polymers. A controlled synthesis of the PSSQ precursors could successfully be performed using a microreactor setup; the molecular weight could be adjusted easily while the polydispersity index could be decreased well below 2.rnThe second approach aimed to incorporate differently derived organic polymers. As examples, polycarbonate and poly(ethylene glycol) were end-group-modified using trialkoxysilanes. After end-group-functionalization these organic polymers could be incorporated into a PSSQ network.rnThese different hybrid polymers showed extraordinary coating abilities. All polymers could be processed from solution by spin-coating or dip-coating. The high amount of reactive silanol moieties in the PSSQ part could be cross-linked after application by annealing at 130° for 1h. Not only cross-linking of the whole film was achieved, which resulted in mechanical interlocking with the substrate, also chemical bonds to metal or metal oxide surfaces were formed. All coating materials showed high stability and adhesion onto various underlying materials, reaching from metals (like steel or gold) and metal oxides (like glass) to plastics (like polycarbonate or polytetrafluoroethylene).rnAs the material and the synthetic pathway were very tolerant toward different functionalities, various functional monomers could be incorporated in the final coating material. The incorporation of N-isopropylacrylamide yielded in temperature-responsive surface coatings, whereas the incorporation of redox-active monomers allowed the preparation of semi-conductive coatings, capable to produce smooth hole-injection layers on transparent conductive electrodes used in optoelectronic devices.rnThe range of possible applications could be increased tremendously by incorporation of reactive monomers, capable to undergo fast and quantitative conversions by polymer-analogous reactions. For example, grafting active esters from a PSSQ precursor yielded a reactive surface coating after application onto numerous substrates. Just by dipping the coated substrate into a solution of a functionalized amine, the desired function could be immobilized at the interface as well as throughout the whole film. The obtained reactive surface coatings could be used as basis for different functional coatings for various applications. The conversion with specifically tuned amines yielded in surfaces with adjustable wetting behaviors, switchable wetting behaviors or as recognition element for surface-oriented bio-analytical devices. The combination of hybrid materials with orthogonal reactivities allowed for the first time the preparation of multi-reactive surfaces which could be functionalized sequentially with defined fractions of different groups at the interface. rnThe introduced concept to synthesis functional hybrid polymers unifies the main requirements on an ideal coating material. Strong adhesion on a wide range of underlying materials was achieved by secondary condensation of the PSSQ part, whereas the organic part allowed incorporation of various functionalities. Thus, a flexible platform to create functional and reactive surface coatings was achieved, which could be applied to different substrates. rn

New biosensor applications of surface plasmon and hydrogel optical waveguide spectroscopy

Rapid and sensitive detection of chemical and biological analytes becomes increasingly important in areas such as medical diagnostics, food control and environmental monitoring. Optical biosensors based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and optical waveguide spectroscopy have been extensively pushed forward in these fields. In this study, we combine SPR, surface plasmon-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy (SPFS) and optical waveguide spectroscopy with hydrogel thin film for highly sensitive detection of molecular analytes.rnrnA novel biosensor based on SPFS which was advanced through the excitation of long range surface plasmons (LRSPs) is reported in this study. LRSPs are special surface plasmon waves propagating along thin metal films with orders of magnitude higher electromagnetic field intensity and lower damping than conventional SPs. Therefore, their excitation on the sensor surface provides further increased fluorescence signal. An inhibition immunoassay based on LRSP-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy (LRSP-FS) was developed for the detection of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk. The biosensor allowed for the detection of AFM1 in milk at concentrations as low as 0.6 pg mL-1, which is about two orders of magnitude lower than the maximum AFM1 residue level in milk stipulated by the European Commission legislation.rnrnIn addition, LRSPs probe the medium adjacent to the metallic surface with more extended evanescent field than regular SPs. Therefore, three-dimensional binding matrices with up to micrometer thickness have been proposed for the immobilization of biomolecular recognition elements with large surface density that allows to exploit the whole evanescent field of LRSP. A photocrosslinkable carboxymethyl dextran (PCDM) hydrogel thin film is used as a binding matrix, and it is applied for the detection of free prostate specific antigen (f-PSA) based on the LRSP-FS and sandwich immunoassay. We show that this approach allows for the detection of f-PSA at low femto-molar range, which is approximately four orders of magnitude lower than that for direct detection of f-PSA based on the monitoring of binding-induced refractive index changes.rnrnHowever, a three dimensional hydrogel binding matrix with micrometer thickness can also serve as an optical waveguide. Based on the measurement of binding-induced refractive index changes, a hydrogel optical waveguide spectroscopy (HOWS) is reported for a label-free biosensor. This biosensor is implemented by using a SPR optical setup in which a carboxylated poly(N-isoproprylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) hydrogel film is attached on a metallic surface and modified by protein catcher molecules. Compared to regular SPR biosensor with thiol self-assembled monolayer (SAM), HOWS provides an order of magnitude improved resolution in the refractive index measurements and enlarged binding capacity owing to its low damping and large swelling ratio, respectively. A model immunoassay experiment revealed that HOWS allowed detection of IgG molecules with a 10 pM limit of detection (LOD) that was five-fold lower than that achieved for SPR with thiol SAM. For the high capacity hydrogel matrix, the affinity binding was mass transport limited.rnrnThe mass transport of target molecules to the sensor surface can play as critical a role as the chemical reaction itself. In order to overcome the diffusion-limited mass transfer, magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles were employed. The magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) can serve both as labels providing enhancement of the refractive index changes, and “vehicles” for rapidly delivering the analytes from sample solution to an SPR sensor surface with a gradient magnetic field. A model sandwich assay for the detection of β human chorionic gonadotropin (βhCG) has been utilized on a gold sensor surface with metallic diffraction grating structure supporting the excitation of SPs. Various detection formats including a) direct detection, b) sandwich assay, c) MNPs immunoassay without and d) with applied magnetic field were compared. The results show that the highly-sensitive MNPs immunoassay improves the LOD on the detection of βhCG by a factor of 5 orders of magnitude with respect to the direct detection.rn

Advanced schemes for surface plasmon resonance and plasmon-enhanced fluorescence biosensors

Advanced optical biosensor platforms exploiting long range surface plasmons (LRSPs) and responsive N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) hydrogel binding matrix for the detection of protein and bacterial pathogen analytes were carried out. LRSPs are optical waves that originate from coupling of surface plasmons on the opposite sites of a thin metallic film embedded between two dielectrics with similar refractive indices. LRSPs exhibit orders of magnitude lower damping and more extended profile of field compared to regular surface plasmons (SPs). Their excitation is accompanied with narrow resonance and provides stronger enhancement of electromagnetic field intensity that can advance the sensitivity of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and surface plasmon-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy (SPFS) biosensors. Firstly, we investigated thin gold layers deposited on fluoropolymer surface for the excitation of LRSPs. The study indicates that the morphological, optical and electrical properties of gold film can be changed by the surface energy of fluoropolymer and affect the performance of a SPFS biosensor. A photo-crosslinkable NIPAAm hydrogel was grafted to the sensor surface in order to serve as a binding matrix. It was modified with bio-recognition elements (BREs) via amine coupling chemistry and offered the advantage of large binding capacity, stimuli responsive properties and good biocompatibility. Through experimental observations supported by numerical simulations describing diffusion mass transfer and affinity binding of target molecules in the hydrogel, the hydrogel binding matrix thickness, concentration of BREs and the profile of the probing evanescent field was optimized. Hydrogel with a up to micrometer thickness was shown to support additional hydrogel optical waveguide (HOW) mode which was employed for probing affinity binding events in the gel by means of refractometric and fluorescence measurements. These schemes allow to reach limits of detection (LODs) at picomolar and femtomolar levels, respectively. Besides hydrogel based experiments for detection of molecular analytes, long range surface plasmon-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy (LRSP-FS) was employed for detection of bacterial pathogens. The influence of capture efficiency of bacteria on surfaces and the profile of the probing field on sensor response were investigated. The potential of LRSP-FS with extended evanescent field is demonstrated for detection of pathogenic E. coli O157:H7 on sandwich immunoassays . LOD as low as 6 cfu mL-1 with a detection time of 40 minutes was achieved.rn

Investigation of the electric field enhanced PNA-DNA hybridization on Au surface by using surface plasmon field-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy (SPFS)

Recently, the surface plasmon field-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy (SPFS) was developed as a kinetic analysis and a detection method with dual- monitoring of the change of reflectivity and fluorescence signal for the interfacial phenomenon. A fundamental study of PNA and DNA interaction at the surface using surface plasmon fluorescence spectroscopy (SPFS) will be investigated in studies. Furthermore, several specific conditions to influence on PNA/DNA hybridization and affinity efficiency by monitoring reflective index changes and fluorescence variation at the same time will be considered. In order to identify the affinity degree of PNA/DNA hybridizaiton at the surface, the association constant (kon) and the dissociation constant (koff) will be obtained by titration experiment of various concentration of target DNA and kinetic investigation. In addition, for more enhancing the hybridization efficiency of PNA/DNA, a study of polarized electric field enhancement system will be introduced and performed in detail. DNA is well-known polyelectrolytes with naturally negative charged molecules in its structure. With polarized electrical treatment, applying DC field to the metal surface, which PNA probe would be immobilized at, negatively charged DNA molecules can be attracted by electromagnetic attraction force and manipulated to the close the surface area, and have more possibility to hybridize with probe PNA molecules by hydrogen bonding each corresponding base sequence. There are several major factors can be influenced on the hybridization efficiency.

Surface patterning with colloidal monolayers

This thesis focuses on the controlled assembly of monodisperse polymer colloids into ordered two-dimensional arrangements. These assemblies, commonly referred to as colloidal monolayers, are subsequently used as masks for the generation of arrays of complex metal nanostructures on solid substrates.rnThe motivation of the research presented here is twofold. First, monolayer crystallization methods were developed to simplify the assembly of colloids and to produce more complex arrangements of colloids in a precise way. Second, various approaches to colloidal lithography are designed with the aim to include novel features or functions to arrays of metal nanostructures.rnThe air/water interface was exploited for the crystallization of colloidal monolayer architectures as it combines a two-dimensional confinement with a high lateral mobility of the colloids that is beneficial for the creation of high long range order. A direct assembly of colloids is presented that provides a cheap, fast and conceptually simple methodology for the preparation of ordered colloidal monolayers. The produced two-dimensional crystals can be transformed into non-close-packed architectures by a plasma-induced size reduction step, thus providing valuable masks for more sophisticated lithographic processes. Finally, the controlled co-assembly of binary colloidal crystals with defined stoichiometries on a Langmuir trough is introduced and characterized with respect to accessible configurations and size ratios. rnSeveral approaches to lithography are presented that aim at introducing different features to colloidal lithography. First, using metal-complex containing latex particles, the synthesis of which is described as well, symmetric arrays of metal nanoparticles can be created by controlled combustion of the organic material of the colloids. The process does not feature an inherent limit in nanoparticle size and is able to produce complex materials as will be demonstrated for FePt alloy particles. Precise control over both size and spacing of the particle array is presented. rnSecond, two lithographic processes are introduced to create sophisticated nanoparticle dimer units consisting of two crescent shaped nanostructures in close proximity; essentially by using a single colloid as mask to generate two structures simultaneously. Strong coupling processes of the parental plasmon resonances of the two objects are observed that are accompanied by high near-field enhancements. A plasmon hybridization model is elaborated to explain all polarization dependent shifts of the resonance positions. Last, a technique to produce laterally patterned, ultra-flat substrates without surface topographies by embedding gold nanoparticles in a silicon dioxide matrix is applied to construct robust and re-usable sensing architectures and to introduce an approach for the nanoscale patterning of solid supported lipid bilayer membranes. rn

The calcite(10-14) surface: a versatile substrate for molecular self-assembly

This thesis presents a detailed and successful study of molecular self-assembly on the calcite CaCO3(10-14) surface. One reason for the superior applicability of this particular surface is given by reflecting the well-known growth modes. Layer-by-layer growth, which is a necessity for the formation of templated two-dimensional (2D) molecular structures, is particularly favoured on substrates with a high surface energy. The CaCO3(10-14) surface is among those substrates and, thus, most promising. rnrnAll experiments in this thesis were performed using the non-contact atomic force microscope (NC-AFM) under ultra-high vacuum conditions. The acquisition of drift-free data became in this thesis possible owing to the herein newly developed atom-tracking system. This system features a lateral tip-positioning precision of at least 50pm. Furthermore, a newly developed scan protocol was implemented in this system, which allows for the acquisition of dense three-dimensional (3D) data under room-temperature conditions. An entire 3D data set from a CaCO3(10-14) surface consisting of 85x85x500 pixel is discussed. rnrnThe row-pairing and (2x1) reconstructions of the CaCO3(10-14) surface constitute most interesting research subjects. For both reconstructions, the NC-AFM imaging was classified to a total of 12 contrast modes. Eight of these modes were observed within this thesis, some of them for the first time. Together with literature findings, a total of 10 modes has been observed experimentally to this day. Some contrast modes presented themselves as highly distance-dependent and at least for one contrast mode, a severe tip-termination influence was found. rnrnMost interestingly, the row-pairing reconstruction was found to break a symmetry element of the CaCO3(10-14) surface. With the presence of this reconstruction, the calcite (10-14) surface becomes chiral. From high-resolution NC-AFM data, the identification of the enantiomers is here possible and is presented for one enantiomer in this thesis. rnrnFive studies of self-assembled molecular structures on calcite (10-14) surfaces are presented. Only for one system, namely HBC/CaCO3(10-14), the formation of a molecular bulk structure was observed. This well-known occurence of weak molecule-insulator interaction hinders the investigation of two-dimensional molecular self-assembly. It was, however, possible to force the formation of an island phase for this system upon following a variable-temperature preparation. rnFor the C60/CaCO3(10-14) system it is most notably that no branched island morphologies were found. Instead, the first C60 layer appeared to wet the calcite surface. rnrnIn all studies, the molecules arranged themselves in ordered superstructures. A templating effect due to the underlying calcite substrate was evident for all systems. This templating strikingly led either to the formation of large commensurate superstructures, such as (2x15) with a 14 molecule basis for the C60/CaCO3(10-14) system, or prevented the vast growth of incommensurate molecular motifs, such as the chicken-wire structure in the trimesic acid (TMA)/CaCO3(10-14) system. rnrnThe molecule-molecule and the molecule-substrate interaction was increased upon choosing molecules with carboxylic acid moieties in the third, fourth and fifth study, using terephthalic acid, TMA and helicene molecules. In all these experiments, hydrogen-bonded assemblies were created. rnrnDirected hydrogen bond formation combined with intermolecular pi-pi interaction is employed in the fifth study, where the formation of uni-directional molecular "wires" from single helicene molecules succeeded. Each "wire" is composed of heterochiral helicene pairs, well-aligned along the [01-10] substrate direction and stabilised by pi-pi interaction.

Developments for transactinide chemistry experiments behind the gas-filled separator TASCA

Topic of this thesis is the development of experiments behind the gas-filled separator TASCA(TransActinide Separator and Chemistry Apparatus) to study the chemical properties of the transactinide elements.rnIn the first part of the thesis, the electrodepositions of short-lived isotopes of ruthenium and osmium on gold electrodes were studied as model experiments for hassium. From literature it is known that the deposition potential of single atoms differs significantly from the potential predicted by the Nernst equation. This shift of the potential depends on the adsorption enthalpy of therndeposited element on the electrode material. If the adsorption on the electrode-material is favoured over the adsorption on a surface made of the same element as the deposited atom, the electrode potential is shifted to higher potentials. This phenomenon is called underpotential deposition.rnPossibilities to automatize an electro chemistry experiment behind the gas-filled separator were explored for later studies with transactinide elements.rnThe second part of this thesis is about the in-situ synthesis of transition-metal-carbonyl complexes with nuclear reaction products. Fission products of uranium-235 and californium-249 were produced at the TRIGA Mainz reactor and thermalized in a carbon-monoxide containing atmosphere. The formed volatile metal-carbonyl complexes could be transported in a gas-stream.rnFurthermore, short-lived isotopes of tungsten, rhenium, osmium, and iridium were synthesised at the linear accelerator UNILAC at GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung, Darmstadt. The recoiling fusion products were separated from the primary beam and the transfer products in the gas-filled separator TASCA. The fusion products were stopped in the focal plane of TASCA in a recoil transfer chamber. This chamber contained a carbon-monoxide – helium gas mixture. The formed metal-carbonyl complexes could be transported in a gas stream to various experimental setups. All synthesised carbonyl complexes were identified by nuclear decay spectroscopy. Some complexes were studied with isothermal chromatography or thermochromatography methods. The chromatograms were compared with Monte Carlo Simulations to determine the adsorption enthalpyrnon silicon dioxide and on gold. These simulations based on existing codes, that were modified for the different geometries of the chromatography channels. All observed adsorption enthalpies (on silcon oxide as well as on gold) are typical for physisorption. Additionally, the thermalstability of some of the carbonyl complexes was studied. This showed that at temperatures above 200 °C therncomplexes start to decompose.rnIt was demonstrated that carbonyl-complex chemistry is a suitable method to study rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and meitnerium. Until now, only very simple, thermally stable compounds have been synthesized in the gas-phase chemistry of the transactindes. With the synthesis of transactinide-carbonyl complexes a new compound class would be discovered. Transactinide chemistry would reach the border between inorganic and metallorganic chemistry.rnFurthermore, the in-situ synthesised carbonyl complexes would allow nuclear spectroscopy studies under low background conditions making use of chemically prepared samples.

Formation and surface exchange of nitrous acid

Die salpetrige Säure (HONO) ist eine der reaktiven Stickstoffkomponenten der Atmosphäre und Pedosphäre. Die genauen Bildungswege von HONO, sowie der gegenseitige Austausch von HONO zwischen Atmosphäre und Pedosphäre sind noch nicht vollständig aufgedeckt. Bei der HONO-Photolyse entsteht das Hydroxylradikal (OH) und Stickstoffmonooxid (NO), was die Bedeutsamkeit von HONO für die atmosphärische Photochemie widerspiegelt.rnUm die genannte Bildung von HONO im Boden und dessen anschließenden Austausch mit der Atmosphäre zu untersuchen, wurden Messungen von Bodenproben mit dynamischen Kammern durchgeführt. Im Labor gemessene Emissionsflüsse von Wasser, NO und HONO zeigen, dass die Emission von HONO in vergleichbarem Umfang und im gleichen Bodenfeuchtebereich wie die für NO (von 6.5 bis 56.0 % WHC) stattfindet. Die Höhe der HONO-Emissionsflüsse bei neutralen bis basischen pH-Werten und die Aktivierungsenergie der HONO-Emissionsflüsse führen zu der Annahme, dass die mikrobielle Nitrifikation die Hauptquelle für die HONO-Emission darstellt. Inhibierungsexperimente mit einer Bodenprobe und die Messung einer Reinkultur von Nitrosomonas europaea bestärkten diese Theorie. Als Schlussfolgerung wurde das konzeptionelle Model der Bodenemission verschiedener Stickstoffkomponenten in Abhängigkeit von dem Wasserhaushalt des Bodens für HONO erweitert.rnIn einem weiteren Versuch wurde zum Spülen der dynamischen Kammer Luft mit erhöhtem Mischungsverhältnis von HONO verwendet. Die Messung einer hervorragend charakterisierten Bodenprobe zeigte bidirektionale Flüsse von HONO. Somit können Böden nicht nur als HONO-Quelle, sondern auch je nach Bedingungen als effektive Senke dienen. rnAußerdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Verhältnis von HONO- zu NO-Emissionen mit dem pH-Wert des Bodens korreliert. Grund könnte die erhöhte Reaktivität von HONO bei niedrigem pH-Wert und die längere Aufenthaltsdauer von HONO verursacht durch reduzierte Gasdiffusion im Bodenporenraum sein, da ein niedriger pH-Wert mit erhöhter Bodenfeuchte am Maximum der Emission einhergeht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die effektive Diffusion von Gasen im Bodenporenraum und die effektive Diffusion von Ionen in der Bodenlösung die HONO-Produktion und den Austausch von HONO mit der Atmosphäre begrenzen. rnErgänzend zu den Messungen im Labor wurde HONO während der Messkampagne HUMPPA-COPEC 2010 im borealen Nadelwald simultan in der Höhe von 1 m über dem Boden und 2 bis 3 m über dem Blätterdach gemessen. Die Budgetberechnungen für HONO zeigen, dass für HONO sämtliche bekannte Quellen und Senken in Bezug auf die übermächtige HONO-Photolyserate tagsüber vernachlässigbar sind (< 20%). Weder Bodenemissionen von HONO, noch die Photolyse von an Oberflächen adsorbierter Salpetersäure können die fehlende Quelle erklären. Die lichtinduzierte Reduktion von Stickstoffdioxid (NO2) an Oberflächen konnte nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Es zeigte sich jedoch, dass die fehlende Quelle stärker mit der HONO-Photolyserate korreliert als mit der entsprechenden Photolysefrequenz, die proportional zur Photolysefrequenz von NO2 ist. Somit lässt sich schlussfolgern, dass entweder die Photolyserate von HONO überschätzt wird oder dass immer noch eine unbekannte, HONO-Quelle existiert, die mit der Photolyserate sehr stark korreliert. rn rn

Multifunctional polyether architectures : versatile materials for surface attachment and functionalization

Chapter 1 of this thesis comprises a review of polyether polyamines, i.e., combinations of polyether scaffolds with polymers bearing multiple amino moieties. Focus is laid on controlled or living polymerization methods. Furthermore, fields in which the combination of cationic, complexing, and pH-sensitive properties of the polyamines and biocompatibility and water-solubility of polyethers promise enormous potential are presented. Applications include stimuli-responsive polymers with a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) and/or the ability to gel, preparation of shell cross-linked (SCL) micelles, gene transfection, and surface functionalization.rnIn Chapter 2, multiaminofunctional polyethers relying on the class of glycidyl amine comonomers for anionic ring-opening polymerization (AROP) are presented. In Chapter 2.1, N,N-diethyl glycidyl amine (DEGA) is introduced for copolymerization with ethylene oxide (EO). Copolymer microstructure is assessed using online 1H NMR kinetics, 13C NMR triad sequence analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The concurrent copolymerization of EO and DEGA is found to result in macromolecules with a gradient structure. The LCSTs of the resulting copolymers can be tailored by adjusting DEGA fraction or pH value of the environment. Quaternization of the amino moieties by methylation results in polyelectrolytes. Block copolymers are used for PEGylated gold nanoparticle formation. Chapter 2.2 deals with a glycidyl amine monomer with a removable protecting group at the amino moiety, for liberation of primary amines at the polyether backbone, which is N,N-diallyl glycidyl amine (DAGA). Its allyl groups are able to withstand the harsh basic conditions of AROP, but can be cleaved homogeneously after polymerization. Gradient as well as block copolymers poly(ethylene glycol)-PDAGA (PEG-PDAGA) are obtained. They are analyzed regarding their microstructure, LCST behavior, and cleavage of the protecting groups. rnChapter 3 describes applications of multi(amino)functional polyethers for functionalization of inorganic surfaces. In Chapter 3.1, they are combined with an acetal-protected catechol initiator, leading to well-defined PEG and heteromultifunctional PEG analogues. After deprotection, multifunctional PEG ligands capable of attaching to a variety of metal oxide surfaces are obtained. In a cooperative project with the Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, JGU Mainz, their potential is demonstrated on MnO nanoparticles, which are promising candidates as T1 contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging. The MnO nanoparticles are solubilized in aqueous solution upon ligand exchange. In Chapter 3.2, a concept for passivation and functionalization of glass surfaces towards gold nanorods is developed. Quaternized mPEG-b-PqDEGA diblock copolymers are attached to negatively charged glass surfaces via the cationic PqDEGA blocks. The PEG blocks are able to suppress gold nanorod adsorption on the glass in the flow cell, analyzed by dark field microscopy.rnChapter 4 highlights a straightforward approach to poly(ethylene glycol) macrocycles. Starting from commercially available bishydroxy-PEG, cyclic polymers are available by perallylation and ring-closing metathesis in presence of Grubbs’ catalyst. Purification of cyclic PEG is carried out using α-cyclodextrin. This cyclic sugar derivative forms inclusion complexes with remaining unreacted linear PEG in aqueous solution. Simple filtration leads to pure macrocycles, as evidenced by SEC and MALDI-ToF mass spectrometry. Cyclic polymers from biocompatible precursors are interesting materials regarding their increased blood circulation time compared to their linear counterparts.rnIn the Appendix, A.1, a study of the temperature-dependent water-solubility of polyether copolymers is presented. Macroscopic cloud points, determined by turbidimetry, are compared with microscopic aggregation phenomena, monitored by continuous wave electron paramagnetic resonance (CW EPR) spectroscopy in presence of the amphiphilic spin probe and model drug (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl (TEMPO). These thermoresponsive polymers are promising candidates for molecular transport applications. The same techniques are applied in Chapter A.2 to explore the pH-dependence of the cloud points of PEG-PDEGA copolymers in further detail. It is shown that the introduction of amino moieties at the PEG backbone allows for precise manipulation of complex phase transition modes. In Chapter A.3, multi-hydroxyfunctional polysilanes are presented. They are obtained via copolymerization of the acetal-protected dichloro(isopropylidene glyceryl propyl ether)methylsilane monomer. The hydroxyl groups are liberated through acidic work-up, yielding versatile access to new multifunctional polysilanes.

Aerosol-cloud interactions studied with a chemistry-climate model

This study aims at a comprehensive understanding of the effects of aerosol-cloud interactions and their effects on cloud properties and climate using the chemistry-climate model EMAC. In this study, CCN activation is regarded as the dominant driver in aerosol-cloud feedback loops in warm clouds. The CCN activation is calculated prognostically using two different cloud droplet nucleation parameterizations, the STN and HYB CDN schemes. Both CDN schemes account for size and chemistry effects on the droplet formation based on the same aerosol properties. The calculation of the solute effect (hygroscopicity) is the main difference between the CDN schemes. The kappa-method is for the first time incorporated into Abdul-Razzak and Ghan activation scheme (ARG) to calculate hygroscopicity and critical supersaturation of aerosols (HYB), and the performance of the modied scheme is compared with the osmotic coefficient model (STN), which is the standard in the ARG scheme. Reference simulations (REF) with the prescribed cloud droplet number concentration have also been carried out in order to understand the effects of aerosol-cloud feedbacks. In addition, since the calculated cloud coverage is an important determinant of cloud radiative effects and is influencing the nucleation process two cloud cover parameterizations (i.e., a relative humidity threshold; RH-CLC and a statistical cloud cover scheme; ST-CLC) have been examined together with the CDN schemes, and their effects on the simulated cloud properties and relevant climate parameters have been investigated. The distinct cloud droplet spectra show strong sensitivity to aerosol composition effects on cloud droplet formation in all particle sizes, especially for the Aitken mode. As Aitken particles are the major component of the total aerosol number concentration and CCN, and are most sensitive to aerosol chemical composition effect (solute effect) on droplet formation, the activation of Aitken particles strongly contribute to total cloud droplet formation and thereby providing different cloud droplet spectra. These different spectra influence cloud structure, cloud properties, and climate, and show regionally varying sensitivity to meteorological and geographical condition as well as the spatiotemporal aerosol properties (i.e., particle size, number, and composition). The changes responding to different CDN schemes are more pronounced at lower altitudes than higher altitudes. Among regions, the subarctic regions show the strongest changes, as the lower surface temperature amplifies the effects of the activated aerosols; in contrast, the Sahara desert, where is an extremely dry area, is less influenced by changes in CCN number concentration. The aerosol-cloud coupling effects have been examined by comparing the prognostic CDN simulations (STN, HYB) with the reference simulation (REF). Most pronounced effects are found in the cloud droplet number concentration, cloud water distribution, and cloud radiative effect. The aerosol-cloud coupling generally increases cloud droplet number concentration; this decreases the efficiency of the formation of weak stratiform precipitation, and increases the cloud water loading. These large-scale changes lead to larger cloud cover and longer cloud lifetime, and contribute to high optical thickness and strong cloud cooling effects. This cools the Earth's surface, increases atmospheric stability, and reduces convective activity. These changes corresponding to aerosol-cloud feedbacks are also differently simulated depending on the cloud cover scheme. The ST-CLC scheme is more sensitive to aerosol-cloud coupling, since this scheme uses a tighter linkage of local dynamics and cloud water distributions in cloud formation process than the RH-CLC scheme. For the calculated total cloud cover, the RH-CLC scheme simulates relatively similar pattern to observations than the ST-CLC scheme does, but the overall properties (e.g., total cloud cover, cloud water content) in the RH simulations are overestimated, particularly over ocean. This is mainly originated from the difference in simulated skewness in each scheme: the RH simulations calculate negatively skewed distributions of cloud cover and relevant cloud water, which is similar to that of the observations, while the ST simulations yield positively skewed distributions resulting in lower mean values than the RH-CLC scheme does. The underestimation of total cloud cover over ocean, particularly over the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) relates to systematic defficiency of the prognostic calculation of skewness in the current set-ups of the ST-CLC scheme.rnOverall, the current EMAC model set-ups perform better over continents for all combinations of the cloud droplet nucleation and cloud cover schemes. To consider aerosol-cloud feedbacks, the HYB scheme is a better method for predicting cloud and climate parameters for both cloud cover schemes than the STN scheme. The RH-CLC scheme offers a better simulation of total cloud cover and the relevant parameters with the HYB scheme and single-moment microphysics (REF) than the ST-CLC does, but is not very sensitive to aerosol-cloud interactions.