The trasition from fixed to floating exchange rate regimes: the case of Brazil

This dissertation evaluates macroeconomic management in Brazil from 1994 to the present, with particular focus on exchange rate policy. It points out that while Brazil's Real Plan succeeded in halting the hyperinflation that had reached more than 2000 percent in 1993, it also caused significant real appreciation of the exchange rate situation that was only made worse by the extremely high interest rates and ensuing bout of severe financial crises in the intemational arena. By the end of 1998, the accumulation of internai and externai imbalances led the authorities to drop foreign exchange controls and allow the currency to float. In spite of some initial scepticism, the flexible rate regime cum inflation target proved to work well. Inflation was kept under control; the current account position improved significantly, real interest rates fell and GDP growth resumed. Thus, while great challenges still lie ahead, the recent successes bestow some optimism on the well functioning of this exchange rate regime. The Brazilian case suggests that successful transition from one foreign exchange system to another, particularly during financial crisis, does not depend only on one variable be it fiscal or monetary. In reality, it depends on whole set of co-ordinated policies aimed at resuming price stability with as little exchange rate and output volatility as possible.

Inflationary bias and state owned financial institutions

This article explains why the existence of state owned financial institutions makes it more difficult for a country to balance its budget. We show that states can use their financiaI institutions to transfer their deficits to the federal govemment. As a result, there is a bias towards Iarge deficits and high inflation rates. Our model also predicts that state owned financiaI institutions should underperform the market, mainly because they concentrate their portfolios on non-performing loans to their own shareholders, that is, the states. Brazil and Argentina are two countries with a history of high inflation that confirm our predictions .

Equity-premium puzzle: evidence from Brazilian data

This paper uses 1992:1-2004:2 quarterly data and two di§erent methods (approximation under lognormality and calibration) to evaluate the existence of an equity-premium puzzle in Brazil. In contrast with some previous works in the Brazilian literature, I conclude that the model used by Mehra and Prescott (1985), either with additive or recursive preferences, is not able to satisfactorily rationalize the equity premium observed in the Brazilian data. The second contribution of the paper is calling the attention to the fact that the utility function may not exist if the data (as it is the case with Brazilian time series) implies the existence of states in which high negative rates of consumption growth are attained with relatively high probability.

Economic growth with foreign saving?

Highly indebted countries, particularly the Latin American ones, presented dismal economic outcomes in the 1990s, which are the consequence of the ‘growth cum foreign savings strategy’, or the Second Washington Consensus. Coupled with liberalization of international financial flows, such strategy, which did not make part of the first consensus, led the countries, in the wave of a new world wide capital flow cycle, to high current account deficits and increase in foreign debt, ignoring the solvency constraint and the debt threshold. In practical terms it involved overvalued currencies (low exchange rates) and high interest rates; in policy terms, the attempt to control de budget deficit while the current account deficit was ignored. The paradoxical consequence was the adoption by highly indebted countries of ‘exchange rate populism’, a less obvious but more dangerous form of economic populism.

From old to new developmentalism in Latin America

O fracasso do consenso de Washington e das políticas macroeconômicas, baseadas em altas taxas de juros e taxas de câmbio não-competitivas para promover o crescimento da economia, levou os países da América Latina a formularem estratégias nacionais de desenvolvimento. O novo desenvolvimentismo é uma estratégia alternativa não apenas à ortodoxia convencional, mas também ao antigo nacional-desenvolvimentismo latino-americano. Enquanto o antigo nacional desenvolvimentismo era baseado na tendência à deterioração dos termos de troca e, adotando uma abordagem microeconômica, propunha planejamento econômico e industrialização, o novo nacional-desenvolvimentismo pressupõe que a industrialização foi alcançada, apesar de em diferentes estágios em cada país, e argumenta que, para assegurar rápidas taxas de crescimento e o catch up, a tendência que deve ser neutralizada é a da sobrevalorização da taxa de câmbio. Contrariamente à economia convencional, um estado capaz continua sendo o instrumento chave para assegurar o desenvolvimento econômico, a política industrial continua sendo necessária; mas o que distingue a nova abordagem é principalmente o crescimento com poupança interna, ao invés de com poupança externa. Uma política macroeconômica baseada em taxas de juros moderadas e uma taxa de câmbio competitiva, e não altas taxas de juros e moeda sobreapreciada conforme recomenda a ortodoxia convencional.

The influence of materialism on consumption indebtedness in the context of low income consumers from the city of São Paulo

This research is in the domains of materialism, consumer vulnerability and consumption indebtedness, concepts frequently approached in the literature on consumer behavior, macro-marketing and economic psychology. The influence of materialism on consumer indebtedness is investigated within a context that is characterized by poverty and by factors that cause vulnerability, such as high interest rates, limited access to credit and to quality affordable goods. The objectives of this research are: to produce a materialism scale that is well adapted to its environment, characterizing materialism adequately for the population studied; to compare results obtained with results of other studies; and to measure the relationship between materialism, socio-demographic variables, attitude to debt and consumption indebtedness. The primary data used in the analyses were collected from field research carried out in August, 2005 that relied on a probabilistic household sample of 450 low income individuals who live in poor regions of the city of Sao Paulo. The materialism scale, adapted and translated into Portuguese from Richins (2004), proved to be very successful and encourages new work in the area. It was noted that younger adults tend to be more materialistic than older ones; that illiterate adults tend to be less materialistic than those who did literacy courses when they were already adults; and that gender, income and race are not associated with the materialism construct. Among the other results, a logistic regression model was developed in order to distinguish those individuals who have an installment plan payment booklet from those who do not, based on materialism, socio-demographic variables and purchasing and consumer habits. The proposed model confirms materialism as a behavioral variable useful for forecasting the probability of an individual getting into debt in order to consume, in some cases almost doubling the chance of occurrence of this event. Findings confirm the thesis that it is not only adverse economic factors that lead people to get into debt; and that the study of demand for credit for consumption purposes must, of necessity, include variables of a psychological nature. It is suggested that the low income materialistic consumer experiences feelings of powerlessness and exclusion because of the gap that exists between their possessions and their desires. Lines of conduct to combat this marginalization from the consumer society are drawn targeting marketing professionals, public policy makers and vulnerability researchers. Finally, the possibility of new studies involving the materialism construct, which is central to literature on consumer behavior, albeit little used in empirical studies in Brazil, are discussed.

Do antigo ao novo desenvolvimentismo na América Latina

O fracasso do Consenso de Washington e das políticas macroeconômicas baseadas em altas taxas de juros e taxas de câmbio não competitivas em gerar crescimento econômico levou a América Latina à necessidade de formular estratégias nacionais de desenvolvimento. O novo desenvolvimentismo é uma estratégia alternativa, não apenas à ortodoxia convencional mas também ao antigo nacional-desenvolvimentismo latino-americano. Enquanto o nacional-desenvolvimentismo se baseava na tendência à deterioração dos termos de troca e, adotando uma abordagem microeconômica, propunha planejamento econômico e industrialização, o novo desenvolvimentismo assume que a industrialização foi alcançada, embora em graus diferentes para cada país, e argumenta que, a fim de garantir taxas rápidas de crescimento e alcançar os países desenvolvidos, o que precisa ser neutralizado é a tendência da taxa de câmbio à sobrevalorização. Contrariamente às alegações do pensamento econômico convencional, um Estado capaz continua sendo o instrumento chave para garantir o desenvolvimento econômico, e a política industrial continua a ser necessária; mas o que distingue a nova abordagem é principalmente o crescimento com poupança interna, em lugar do crescimento com poupança externa, uma política macroeconômica baseada em taxas moderadas de juros e uma taxa de câmbio competitiva, em lugar das altas taxas de juros e das moedas sobrevalorizadas preconizadas pela ortodoxia convencional.

A utilização do cartão de crédito como instrumento de dívida da população: um estudo do tema, causas e consequências com base na experiência da Coreia do Sul.

A crise bancária que atingiu a Coreia do Sul em 2002 está relacionada, em grande parte, com a grande velocidade de crescimento e penetração da população no segmento de cartões de crédito, fazendo com que o país recebesse a denominação de “República dos Cartões de Plástico” pela mídia internacional. Em 2003, como resultado deste crescimento, o sistema financeiro do país precisou ser socorrido pelo governo sul coreano, pois o endividamento do consumidor havia saído do controle. Atualmente, alguns estudos indicam que o Brasil pode estar caminhando para uma situação semelhante, compensando o alto nível de endividamento da população sul-coreana, com as altas taxas de juros cobradas neste segmento pelos bancos brasileiros. Com base na experiência da Coreia do Sul, este trabalho explora as principais causas deste fenômeno, a motivação da população em buscar este tipo específico de financiamento, a dicotomia dos agentes ao tratar deste crescimento e quais medidas podem ser tomadas para evitar um possível colapso no sistema financeiro.

Capital flows and monetary control under a domestic currency substitution regime: the recent Brazilian experience

The 90s have witnessed a resumption in capital flows to Latin America. due to the conjugation of low interest rates in the US and economic reforms in most LA countries. In Brazil. however. substantial capital flows have becn induced by the extremely high domestic interest rates practiced by the Central Bank as a measure of last reson given the absence of successful stabilization policies. These very high interest rates were needed to prevent capital flight in a context of a surprisingly stable inflation rate above 20% a month. and keep interest bearing govemment securities preferable to foreign assets as money substitutes. We carefully describe how this domestic currency substitution regime (interest bearing govemment securities are substituted for MIas cash holdings) requires the Central Bank to renounce aoy control over monerary aggregates. In this domestic currency substitution regime. hyperinflation is the most likely outcome of an isolated (i.e.. without fiscal adjusanents) attempt by the Brazilian Central Bank to control money.

Information asymmetry and competition in credit markets: the pricing of overdraft loans in Brazil

This paper evaluates how information asymmetry affects the strength of competition in credit markets. A theory is presented in which adverse selection softens competition by decreasing the incentives creditors have for competing in the interest rate dimension. In equilibirum, although creditors compete, the outcome is similar to collusion. Three empirical implications arise. First, interest rate should respond asymmetrically to changes in the cost of funds: increases in cost of funds should, on average, have a larger effect on interest rates than decreases. Second, aggressiveness in pricing should be associated with a worseing in the bank level default rates. Third, bank level default rates should be endogenous. We then verify the validity of these three empirical implications using Brazilian data on consumer overdraft loans. The results in this paper rationalize seemingly abnormallly high interest rates in unsecured loans.

O diferencial entre as curvas de juros doméstica e externa em reais é uma evidência para o argumento de "incerteza jurisdicional"?

O trabalho faz uma análise sobre as taxas de juros brasileiras, além das principais características da curva soberana de juros nominais, dando ênfase aos títulos pré-fixados emitidos pelo governo em moeda local, no mercado doméstico e externo, onde notamos a ocorrência de um fenômeno bastante peculiar, que é o diferencial de rendimento e de maturidade existentes entre os dois mercados. Arida, Bacha e Lara-Resende (2004) conjecturam sobre a existência de um risco inerente ao país, chamado por eles de “incerteza jurisdicional”, relacionado às instituições brasileiras, e que estaria por trás das altas taxas de juros e da inexistência de um mercado de crédito doméstico de longo prazo. É feito um diagnóstico mais detalhado sobre as possíveis causas do fenômeno de maior maturidade e menor rendimento dos títulos emitidos no mercado externo em relação aos títulos do mercado interno, notando-se que ambos os fenômenos – dos altos juros brasileiros e da inexistência de um mercado juros de longo prazo – estão diretamente relacionados. As conclusões sobre as possíveis causas para o diferencial de rendimento entre os títulos locais e externos emitidos em Reais dizem respeito tanto aos fatores quantitativos, relacionados aos custos de investimento no Brasil e ao risco de conversibilidade, que contribuem em parte para aumentar as taxas exigidas para os títulos locais, bem como aos fatores qualitativos, como piores instituições no Brasil em relação às instituições externas. A diferença de maturidade entre os títulos também advém de questões institucionais, o que reafirma de certo modo a teoria de “incerteza jurisdicional” para explicar este fenômeno.