Photoacoustic study of the effect of degassing temperature on thermal diffusivity of hydroxyl loaded alumina

The thermal diffusivity of y-alumina is determined by the photoacoustic method. The method is calibrated by determining the thermal diffusivity of copper and aluminum. The effect of the chemisorbed hydroxyl groups or thermal diffusivity is studied by degassing the sample at different temperatures.

Characterization of Selected Photonic Materials and Systems Using Photoacoustic Technique

The photoacoustic investigations carried out on different photonic materials are presented in this thesis. Photonic materials selected for the investigation are tape cast ceramics, muItilayer dielectric coatings, organic dye doped PVA films and PMMA matrix doped with dye mixtures. The studies are performed by the measurement of photoacoustic signal generated as a result of modulated cw laser irradiation of samples. The gas-microphone scheme is employed for the detection of photoacoustic signal. The different measurements reported here reveal the adaptability and utility of the PA technique for the characterization of photonic materials.Ceramics find applications in the field of microelectronics industry. Tape cast ceramics are the building blocks of many electronic components and certain ceramic tapes are used as thermal barriers. The thermal parameters of these tapes will not be the same as that of thin films of the same materials. Parameters are influenced by the presence of foreign bodies in the matrix and the sample preparation technique. Measurements are done on ceramic tapes of Zirconia, Zirconia-Alumina combination, barium titanate, barium tin titanate, silicon carbide, lead zirconate titanateil'Z'T) and lead magnesium niobate titanate(PMNPT). Various configurations viz. heat reflection geometry and heat transmission geometry of the photoacoustic technique have been used for the evaluation of different thermal parameters of the sample. Heat reflection geometry of the PA cell has been used for the evaluation of thermal effusivity and heat transmission geometry has been made use of in the evaluation of thermal diffusivity. From the thermal diffusivity and thermal effusivity values, thermal conductivity is also calculated. The calculated values are nearly the same as the values reported for pure materials. This shows the feasibility of photoacoustic technique for the thermal characterization of ceramic tapes.Organic dyes find applications as holographic recording medium and as active media for laser operations. Knowledge of the photochemical stability of the material is essential if it has to be used tor any of these applications. Mixing one dye with another can change the properties of the resulting system. Through careful mixing of the dyes in appropriate proportions and incorporating them in polymer matrices, media of required stability can be prepared. Investigations are carried out on Rhodamine 6GRhodamine B mixture doped PMMA samples. Addition of RhB in small amounts is found to stabilize Rh6G against photodegradation and addition of Rh6G into RhB increases the photosensitivity of the latter. The PA technique has been successfully employed for the monitoring of dye mixture doped PMMA sample. The same technique has been used for the monitoring of photodegradation ofa laser dye, cresyl violet doped polyvinyl alcohol also.Another important application of photoacoustic technique is in nondestructive evaluation of layered samples. Depth profiling capability of PA technique has been used for the non-destructive testing of multilayer dielectric films, which are highly reflecting in the wavelength range selected for investigations. Eventhough calculation of thickness of the film is not possible, number of layers present in the system can be found out using PA technique. The phase plot has clear step like discontinuities, the number of which coincides with the number of layers present in the multilayer stack. This shows the sensitivity of PA signal phase to boundaries in a layered structure. This aspect of PA signal can be utilized in non-destructive depth profiling of reflecting samples and for the identification of defects in layered structures.

Photothermal and photoacoustic investigations on certain polymers and semi conducting materials

Material synthesizing and characterization has been one of the major areas of scientific research for the past few decades. Various techniques have been suggested for the preparation and characterization of thin films and bulk samples according to the industrial and scientific applications. Material characterization implies the determination of the electrical, magnetic, optical or thermal properties of the material under study. Though it is possible to study all these properties of a material, we concentrate on the thermal and optical properties of certain polymers. The thermal properties are detennined using photothermal beam deflection technique and the optical properties are obtained from various spectroscopic analyses. In addition, thermal properties of a class of semiconducting compounds, copper delafossites, arc determined by photoacoustic technique.Photothermal technique is one of the most powerful tools for non-destructive characterization of materials. This forms a broad class of technique, which includes laser calorimetry, pyroelectric technique, photoacollstics, photothermal radiometric technique, photothermal beam deflection technique etc. However, the choice of a suitable technique depends upon the nature of sample and its environment, purpose of measurement, nature of light source used etc. The polynler samples under the present investigation are thermally thin and optically transparent at the excitation (pump beam) wavelength. Photothermal beam deflection technique is advantageous in that it can be used for the detennination of thermal diffusivity of samples irrespective of them being thermally thick or thennally thin and optically opaque or optically transparent. Hence of all the abovementioned techniques, photothemlal beam deflection technique is employed for the successful determination of thermal diffusivity of these polymer samples. However, the semi conducting samples studied are themlally thick and optically opaque and therefore, a much simpler photoacoustic technique is used for the thermal characterization.The production of polymer thin film samples has gained considerable attention for the past few years. Different techniques like plasma polymerization, electron bombardment, ultra violet irradiation and thermal evaporation can be used for the preparation of polymer thin films from their respective monomers. Among these, plasma polymerization or glow discharge polymerization has been widely lIsed for polymer thin fi Im preparation. At the earlier stages of the discovery, the plasma polymerization technique was not treated as a standard method for preparation of polymers. This method gained importance only when they were used to make special coatings on metals and began to be recognized as a technique for synthesizing polymers. Thc well-recognized concept of conventional polymerization is based on molecular processcs by which thc size of the molecule increases and rearrangemcnt of atoms within a molecule seldom occurs. However, polymer formation in plasma is recognized as an atomic process in contrast to the above molecular process. These films are pinhole free, highly branched and cross linked, heat resistant, exceptionally dielectric etc. The optical properties like the direct and indirect bandgaps, refractive indices etc of certain plasma polymerized thin films prepared are determined from the UV -VIS-NIR absorption and transmission spectra. The possible linkage in the formation of the polymers is suggested by comparing the FTIR spectra of the monomer and the polymer. The thermal diffusivity has been measured using the photothermal beam deflection technique as stated earlier. This technique measures the refractive index gradient established in the sample surface and in the adjacent coupling medium, by passing another optical beam (probe beam) through this region and hence the name probe beam deflection. The deflection is detected using a position sensitive detector and its output is fed to a lock-in-amplifIer from which the amplitude and phase of the deflection can be directly obtained. The amplitude and phase of the deflection signal is suitably analyzed for determining the thermal diffusivity.Another class of compounds under the present investigation is copper delafossites. These samples in the form of pellets are thermally thick and optically opaque. Thermal diffusivity of such semiconductors is investigated using the photoacoustic technique, which measures the pressure change using an elcctret microphone. The output of the microphone is fed to a lock-in-amplificr to obtain the amplitude and phase from which the thermal properties are obtained. The variation in thermal diffusivity with composition is studied.

Thermal diffusivity of some polymer supported halogeno benzimidazole complexes of cobalt(II) and copper(II) - a photoacoustic study

The thermal diffusivities of some polystyrene supported Schiff complexes of Co(II) and Cu(II) were determined by the laser induced photoacoustic technique. The effect of metal as well as the halogen part on thermal diffusivity of polymer supported complexes was studied. The thermal diffusivity of Co complexes increases while it decreases in Cu complexes with Cl, Br and I substitutions, respectively.

Open-cell photoacoustic investigation of the thermal effusivity of liquid crystals

We report the use of an open photoacoustic cell configuration for the evaluation of thermal effusivity of liquid crystals. Initially, the method is calibrated using water and glycerol as transparent liquid samples, and the role of thermal conductivity of these liquids on the photoacoustic signal amplitude is discussed. To demonstrate the application of the present method for the evaluation of thermal effusivity of liquid crystals, we have used certain multicomponent nematic liquid crystal mixtures, namely BL001, BL002, BL032, and BL035. Each of these liquid crystal mixtures contains four to nine components and are primarily based on the cyanobiphenyl structure. The measured values of thermal effusivity of BL001 and BL002 were found to be almost the same, but differ from those of BL032 and BL035, which implies a difference in composition of the latter two from the former two mixtures.

Photoacoustic investigation of doped InP using open cell configuration

An open cell photoacoustic (PA) configuration has been employed to evaluate the thermal diffusivity of intrinsic InP as well as InP doped with tin and iron. Thermal diffusivity data have been evaluated from variation of phase of PA signal as a function of modulation frequency. In doped samples, we observe a reduced value for thermal diffusivity in comparison with intrinsic InP. We also observed that, while the phase of the PA signal varies linearly with the square root of chopping frequency for doped samples, the intrinsic material does not exhibit such behaviour in the experimental frequency range. These results have been interpreted in terms of the heat generation and phonon assisted heat diffusion mechanisms in semiconductors.

Photoacoustic studies on n-type InP

We discuss an open photoacoustic cell study on sulfer-doped n-type InP wafer. The thermal diffusivity of the sample is evaluated from the phase data associated with the photoacoustic signal as a function of the modulation frequency under heat transmission configuration. Analysis is made on the basis of the Rosencwaig-Gersho theory and the results are compared with those from earlier reported photoacoustic studies of semiconductors. Our investigation clearly indicates that the instantaneous thermalization process is the major heat diffusion mechanism responsible for the photoacoustic signal generation in an InP sample.

Photoacoustic Thermal Characterization of Porous Rare-Earth Phosphate Ceramics

The laser induced non-destructive photoacoustic technique has been employed to measure the thermal diffusivity of lanthanum phosphate ceramics prepared by the sol–gel route. The thermal diffusivity value was evaluated by knowing the transition frequency between the thermally thin to thermally thick region from the log–log plot of photoacoustic amplitude versus chopping frequency. Analysis of the data was carried out on the basis of the one-dimensional model of Rosencwaig and Gersho. The present investigation reveals that the sintering temperature has great influence on the propagation of heat carriers and hence on the thermal diffusivity value. The results were interpreted in terms of variations in porosity with sintering temperature as well as with changes in grain size.

Effect of Te doping on thermal diffusivity of Bi2Se3 crystals: A study using open cell photoacoustic technique

An open cell configuration has been employed for the photoacoustic measurement of the thermal diffusivity of undoped Bi2Se3 crystals and Bi2Se3 crystals doped with various concentrations of Te. The amplitude of the photoacoustic signal obtained under heat transmission configuration as a function of chopping frequency is used to evaluate the numerical value of thermal diffusivity, α. Doped samples show a substantial reduction in the value of α compared to undoped samples. The variations in the thermal diffusivity of the doped samples are explained in terms of the phonon assisted heat transfer mechanism. It is seen that α is very sensitive to structural variations arising from doping. The experimentally observed results are correlated with X-ray diffraction studies.

Photoacoustic studies on multilayer dielectric coatings

Non-destructive testing d multilayer dielectric coatings (SiO2/TiO2 structure) has been carried out using the photoacoustic technique. This technique makes use d a 10 mW He-Ne laser, a photoacoustic cell and a lock-in amplifier. The chopped He-Ne laser beam is allowed to fall on the sample placed in a photoacoustic cell. The acoustic signals thus generated are detected using a microphone and the resulting output is processed by a lock-in amplifier. The amplitude and phase of the signals were measured as a function of the chopping frequency. Striking step-like variations are observed in me phase against frequency plot which dearly reveals the different layers present in the multilayer structure.

Photoacoustic observation of excited singlet state absorption in the laser dye rhodamine 6G

S1 to S3 excited singlet state absorption and two-photon absorption in Rhodamine 6G at the pump wavelengths of 532 and 1064 nm respectively are investigated. The advantages of employing the pulsed photoacoustic technique for conveniently observing excited singlet state absorption are discussed. It is shown that, since photoacoustics and fluorescence are complementary phenomena, analysis using both techniques will yield a better understanding of optical processes in molecules like Rhodamine 6G.

Pulsed photoacoustic technique to study nonlinear processes in liquids: Results in toluene

Pulsed photoacoustic measurements have been carried out in toluene at 532 nm wavelength using a Q-switched frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser. The variation of photoacoustic signal amplitude with incident laser power indicates that at lower laser powers one photon absorption takes place at this wavelength while a clear two photon absorption occurs in this liquid at higher laser powers. The studies made here demonstrate that pulsed photoacoustic technique is simple and effective for the investigation of multiphoton processes in liquids.

Photoacoustic signal saturation and optical limiting in C70-toluene solution

Pulsed photoacoustic studies in solutions of C70 in toluene are made using the 532-nm radiation from a frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser. It is found that contrary to expectation, there is no photoacoustic (PA) signal enhancement in the power-limiting range of laser fluences. Instead, the PA signal tends to saturate during optical power-limiting phenomenon. This could be due to the enhanced optical absorption from the photoexcited state and hence the depletion of the ground-state population. PA measurements also ruled out the possibility of multiphoton absorption in the C70 solution. We demonstrate that the nonlinear absorption leading to optical limiting is mainly due to reverse saturable absorption.

Thermal characterisation of doped InP using photoacoustic technique

An open cell photoacoustic configuration has been employed to evaluate the thermal diffusivity of pure InP as well as InP doped with sulphur and iron. Chopped optical radiation at 488 nm from an Ar-ion laser has been used to excite photoacoustic signals which been detected by a sensitive electret microphone. Thermal diffusivity value have been calculated from phase versus chopping frequency plots. Doped sample are found to show a reduced value for thermal diffusivity in comparison with intrinsically pure sample. The results have been interpreted in terms of the mechanisms of heat generation and transmission in semiconductors.

Photoacoustic thermal characterization of Al2O3–Ag ceramic nanocomposites

Laser-induced nondestructive photoacoustic (PA) technique has been employed to determine the thermal diffusivity of nanometal (Ag) dispersed ceramic alumina matrix sintered at different temperatures. The thermal diffusivity values are evaluated by knowing the transition frequency from the amplitude spectrum of PA signal using the one-dimensional heat flow model of Rosencwaig and Gersho. Analysis of the data shows that heat transport and hence the thermal diffusivity value is greatly affected by the influence of incorporation of foreign atom. It is also seen that sintering temperature affects the thermal diffusivity value in a substantial manner. The results are interpreted in terms of variation in porosity and carrier-assisted heat transport mechanism in nanometal dispersed ceramics.