Canadian Pacific Linjens sällskapsresa till Canada

kuv., 10 x 15 cm

Pursuing substantive participation in Russia : a perspective from international legal obligations and comparative law

Så som är fallet för många andra stater, kan vissa delar av den ryska förvaltningen ännu utvecklas för att till fullo uppfylla internationella standarder. Internationella fördragsorgan som övervakar förverkligandet i Ryssland av fördrag om mänskliga rättigheter framför ibland kritiska anmärkningar om den demokratiska utvecklingen i Ryssland. Enskilda fall där politiska rättigheter möjligen kränkts av ryska myndigheter har utan tvivel placerat Ryssland i fokus för internationell media. Exempel på sådana fall är mordet på journalisten Anna Politkovskaya, Sergei Magnitskys död i fängelse och fängslandet av medlemmarna i "Pussy Riot”. Likväl anser författaren av denna studie att politiska rättigheter i Ryssland förverkligas inom rimliga gränser och i enlighet med internationell människorättslagstiftning. Denna studie fokuserar på förverkligandet av den individuella rättigheten att delta i det politiska beslutsfattandet i Ryssland genom andra mekanismer för deltagande än val och folkomröstningar. Studien utgörs av en sammanställning av forskningsartiklar som har publicerats i olika internationella tidskrifter. Sammanställningen föregås av ett fristående inledande kapitel. Författaren koncentrerar sig på frågan om Rysslands invånare ges effektiva möjligheter att delta i handhavandet av allmänna angelägenheter och om det finns användbara rättsmedel till hands för skydd av de politiska rättigheterna. Författaren tar sig an en juridisk analys av rysk lagstiftning gällande olika sätt för direkt deltagande i beslutsfattande samt analyserar rättsfall angående direkt deltagande från domstolarna i Moskva, Perm Krai och Sverdlovsk Oblast. Denna studie använder sig även av en rättshistorisk infallsvinkel för att visa på den positiva dynamiken hos den historiska utvecklingen beträffande d e väsentligaste plattformarna för offentligt deltagande. Det bevisas att rysk lagstiftning som garanterar rätten att delta i beslutsfattande är väl utvecklad i enlighet med internationella människorättsfördrag, och att åtminstone domstolarna i de utvalda ryska områdena fattar beslut som stöder deltaganderättigheter som eventuellt kränkts av myndigheter inom den verkställande makten. Författaren kommer till den slutsatsen att de i denna studie inkluderade enskilda dokumenterade händelserna gällande administrativ felbehandling inte nödvändigtvis tillåter den direkta slutsatsen att det begås systematiska och grova kränkningar av medborgares deltaganderättigheter i Ryssland.

Opportunistisen sopimusrikkomuksen ongelmasta, erityisesti Suomen vahingonkorvaus- ja rikoslainsäädännön näkökulmasta tarkasteltuna. Law and Economics -näkökulma.

Tämä pro gradu -tutkielma käsittelee opportunistisen sopimusrikkomuksen ongelmaa erityisesti Suomen vahingonkorvaus- ja rikoslainsäädännön näkökulmasta tarkasteltuna. Tutkielman lähestymistapa on oikeustaloustieteellinen (engl. Law and Economics). Opportunistisella sopimusrikkomuksella tarkoitetaan toimintaa, jossa sopimusosapuoli rikkoo sopimuksen tarkoituksellisesti, pyrkimyksenään tällä toiminnalla saavuttaa enemmän hyötyä kuin sopimuksessa pysymällä. Opportunistinen sopimusrikkomus on mahdollista toteuttaa tilanteessa, jossa sopimusasetelma itsessään antaa mahdollisuuden enemmän hyödyn saavuttamiseen rikkomus toteuttamalla kuin sopimus asianmukaisesti täyttämällä. Suomalaisessa vahingonkorvausjärjestelmässä sovelletaan sopimusrikkomusten osalla positiivisen sopimusedun mukaista vahingonkorvausta, joka hyvittää rikotulle osapuolelle sopimussuhteeseen ryhtymisestä syntyneet kustannukset sekä sopimusrikkomuksen johdosta saamatta jääneen tuoton. Positiivisen sopimusedun soveltaminen ei kuitenkaan ole opportunistisen sopimusrikkomuksen ehkäisemiseksi riittävää, sillä opportunistisesti toimiva sopimusosapuoli voi jäädä rikkomuksensa johdosta voitolle vielä sen jälkeenkin, kun kärsineelle osapuolelle on jo positiivista sopimusetua noudattaen korvattu sopimussuhteessa syntyneet kustannukset sekä rikkomuksen johdosta saamatta jäänyt tuotto. Keskeinen ongelma koskien opportunististen sopimusrikkomustilanteiden syntyä onkin juuri vallitsevan sääntelyn liiallinen keskittyminen rikotun osapuolen kärsimän vahingon kompensoimiseen, ei rikkomustilanteiden synnyn ennaltaehkäisemiseen. Suomen vahingonkorvausjärjestelmää tulisi kehittää suuntaan, jossa järjestelmä paremmin ennaltaehkäisisi opportunististen sopimusrikkomustilanteiden syntyä. Common law -oikeusjärjestelmässä käytössä olevan disgorgement principle -suuntaisen ajattelun, jossa korvauksen perustana toimisi rikkomuksella saatu hyöty kärsityn vahingon sijaan, omaksuminen olisi yksi mahdollinen kehityskulku. Olennaista olisi kuitenkin se, että järjestelmää kehitettäisiin suuntaan, jossa rikkomus ei enää voisi tulla rikkojalle kannattavaksi. Opportunistisen toiminnan kannustimet tulisi lainsäädäntöä tarkistamalla poistaa. Tällä olisi sekä sopimusinstituutiota turvaavaa että vaihdantaa edistävää vaikutusta.

Coping with international atrocities through criminal law : a study into the typical features of international criminality and the reflection of these traits in international criminal law

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Overview on the Cost-effectiveness of Maritime Safety Policy Instruments

Maritime safety is an issue that has gained a lot of attention in the Baltic Sea area due to the dense maritime traffic and transportation of oil in the area. Lots of effort has been paid to enhance maritime safety in the area. The risk exists that excessive legislation and other requirements mean more costs for limited benefit. In order to utilize both public and private resources efficiently, awareness is required of what kind of costs maritime safety policy instruments cause and whether the costs are in relation to benefits. The aim of this report is to present an overview of the cost-effectiveness of maritime safety policy instruments focusing on the cost aspect: what kind of costs maritime safety policy causes, to whom, what affects the cost-effectiveness and how cost-effectiveness is studied. The study is based on a literature review and on the interviews of Finnish maritime experts. The results of this study imply that cost-effectiveness is a complicated issue to evaluate. There are no uniform practices for which costs and benefits should be included in the evaluation and how they should be valued. One of the challenges is how to measure costs and benefits during the course of a longer time period. Often a lack of data erodes the reliability of evaluation. In the prevention of maritime accidents, costs typically include investments in ship structures or equipment, as well as maintenance and labor costs. Also large investments may be justifiable if they respectively provide significant improvements to maritime safety. Measures are cost-effective only if they are implemented properly. Costeffectiveness is decreased if a measure causes overlapping or repetitious work. Costeffectiveness is also decreased if the technology isn’t user-friendly or if it is soon replaced with a new technology or another new appliance. In future studies on the cost-effectiveness of maritime safety policy, it is important to acknowledge the dependency between different policy instruments and the uncertainty of the factors affecting cost-effectiveness. The costs of a single measure are rarely relatively significant and the effect of each measure on safety tends to be positive. The challenge is to rank the measures and to find the most effective combination of different policy instruments. The greatest potential offered for the analysis of cost-effectiveness of individual measures is their implementation in clearly defined risk situations, in which different measures are truly alternative to each other. Overall, maritime safety measures do not seem to be considered burdening for the shipping industry in Finland at the moment. Generally actors in the Finnish shipping industry seem to find maintaining a high safety level important and act accordingly.

Maritime safety in the Gulf of Finland. Evaluation of the regulatory system

Growing traffic is believed to increase the risk of an accident in the Gulf of Finland. As the consequences of a large oil accident would be devastating in the vulnerable sea area, accident prevention is performed at the international, regional and national levels. Activities of shipping companies are governed with maritime safety policy instruments, which can be categorised into regulatory, economic and information instruments. The maritime regulatory system has been criticised for being inefficient because it has not been able to eliminate the violations that enable accidents. This report aims to discover how maritime governance systems or maritime safety policy instruments could be made more efficient in the future, in order to improve the maritime safety level. The results of the research are based on a literature review and nine expert interviews, with participants from shipping companies, interest groups and authorities. Based on the literature and the interviews, a suggestion can be made that in the future, instead of implementing new policy instruments, maritime safety risks should be eliminated by making the existing system more efficient and by influencing shipping companies’ safety culture and seafarers’ safety related attitudes. Based on this research, it can be stated that the development of maritime safety policy instruments should concentrate on harmonisation, automation and increasing national and cross-border cooperation. These three tasks could be primarily accomplished by developing the existing technology. Human error plays a role in a significant number of maritime accidents. Because of this, improving companies’ safety culture and voluntary activities that go beyond laws are acknowledged as potential ways of improving maritime safety. In the future, maritime regulatory system should be developed into a direction where the private sector has better possibilities to take part in decision-making.

Etelä- ja Itä-Kiinan meret aluekiistojen ja valtakamppailun näyttämönä

Etelä- ja Itä-Kiinan meret ovat maailman liikennöidyimpiä – ja kiistellyimpiä – merialueita. Merialueita ympäröivät valtiot ovat ajautuneet kiistelemään jopa pinnanalaisista karikoista, mutta miksi? Aluekiistojen taustalta löytyy useita geo-poliittisia tekijöitä ja valtioiden intressien ristiriitaisuus tekee kiistoista hankalia ratkaista. Alueen suurvalta Kiina on modernisoinut asevoimiaan ja Yhdysvallat pyrkii yhteistyöhön Kiinaa ympäröivien maiden kanssa sekoittaen entisestään alueen voimasuhteita.

The European Union and Assembling Biofuel Development – topological investigations concerning the associations between law, policy and space

Biofuels for transport are a renewable source of energy that were once heralded as a solution to multiple problems associated with poor urban air quality, the overproduction of agricultural commodities, the energy security of the European Union (EU) and climate change. It was only after the Union had implemented an incentivizing framework of legal and political instruments for the production, trade and consumption of biofuels that the problems of weakening food security, environmental degradation and increasing greenhouse gases through land-use changes began to unfold. In other words, the difference between political aims for why biofuels are promoted and their consequences has grown – which is also recognized by the EU policy-makers. Therefore, the global networks of producing, trading and consuming biofuels may face a complete restructure if the European Commission accomplishes its pursuit to sideline crop-based biofuels after 2020. My aim with this dissertation is not only to trace the manifold evolutions of the instruments used by the Union to govern biofuels but also to reveal how this evolution has influenced the dynamics of biofuel development. Therefore, I study the ways the EU’s legal and political instruments of steering biofuels are coconstitutive with the globalized spaces of biofuel development. My analytical strategy can be outlined through three concepts. I use the term ‘assemblage’ to approach the operations of the loose entity of actors and non-human elements that are the constituents of multi-scalar and -sectorial biofuel development. ‘Topology’ refers to the spatiality of this European biofuel assemblage and its parts whose evolving relations are treated as the active constituents of space, instead of simply being located in space. I apply the concept of ‘nomosphere’ to characterize the framework of policies, laws and other instruments that the EU applies and construes while attempting to govern biofuels. Even though both the materials and methods vary in the independent articles, these three concepts characterize my analytical strategy that allows me to study law, policy and space associated with each other. The results of my examinations underscore the importance of the instruments of governance of the EU constituting and stabilizing the spaces of producing and, on the other hand, how topological ruptures in biofuel development have enforced the need to reform policies. This analysis maps the vast scope of actors that are influenced by the mechanism of EU biofuel governance and, what is more, shows how they are actively engaging in the Union’s institutional policy formulation. By examining the consequences of fast biofuel development that are spatially dislocated from the established spaces of producing, trading and consuming biofuels such as indirect land use changes, I unfold the processes not tackled by the instruments of the EU. Indeed, it is these spatially dislocated processes that have pushed the Commission construing a new type of governing biofuels: transferring the instruments of climate change mitigation to land-use policies. Although efficient in mitigating these dislocated consequences, these instruments have also created peculiar ontological scaffolding for governing biofuels. According to this mode of governance, the spatiality of biofuel development appears to be already determined and the agency that could dampen the negative consequences originating from land-use practices is treated as irrelevant.

Baye de Hudson et pays voisins

Julkaisussa: Le petit atlas maritime : recueil de cartes et plans des quatre parties du monde en cinq volumes. Vol. I

Plan de Stockhom

Julkaisussa: Le petit atlas maritime : recueil de cartes et plans des quatre parties du monde en cinq volumes. Vol. IV

Carte réduite du globe terrestre

Julkaisussa: Le petit atlas maritime : recueil de cartes et plans des quatre parties du monde en cinq volumes. Vol. I

Nieuwe pascaart

Julkaisussa: Atlas marin, ou, Monde maritime

Oost Zee

Julkaisussa: Atlas marin, ou, Monde maritime