Convergence withEU environmental legislation in Russia and Kyoto Protocol effects on certain power plants in Russia

Venäjällä uudistetaan sähkömarkkinoita. Uudistamisella pyritään vapauttamaan sähkömarkkinat ja lisäämään kilpailua energiasektorilla. Sähkömarkkinoiden vapauttamisen tarkoitus on energiasektorin hyötysuhteen nostaminen ja investointien houkutteleminen sektorille. Venäjä on ratifioinut Kioton protokollan, mikä energiasektorin kannalta on tärkeää, koska protokollan yhteistoteutusmekanismin kautta saadaan houkuteltua investointeja sektorille. Venäjän sähkömarkkinoiden vapauttamisen pitkäaikainen tähtäin on Venäjän ja Euroopan sähkömarkkinoiden integroituminen, joka tarkoittaa myös ympäristölainsäädännönyhtenäistämistä. Tämä tutkimus on osa Fortum Oyj:n tarjoamaa teknistä katselmusta Venäjällä toimivalle sähköyhtiölle, TGC-9:lle. Tässä työssä keskitytään TGC-9:n omistamien energiatuotantolaitoksien happamoitumista aiheuttaviin ilmapäästöihin ja pölypäästöihin. Tutkimuksessa pyritään myös löytämään Kioton protokollan yhteistoteutusmekanismi hyödyntämiskohteita. NOx -päästöt tulevat olemaan suurin haaste TGC-9:lle, jos ympäristöstandardit yhdenmukaistetaan. Yhteistoteutusmekanismin hyödyntämiskohteita löydettiin neljä: koksaamokaasun hyödyntäminen, maakaasun korvaaminen kuoren poltolla ja kaksi tapausta liittyen laitoksien hyötysuhteen nostamiseen.

Environmental requirements and environmental management system of boiler plant supplier

Työn tärkeimpänä tavoitteena oli edistää ympäristöjärjestelmän laatimista Kvaerner Pulping, Power divisioonan Kattilat-liiketoimintayksikölle. Lisäksi tavoitteena oli tarkastella yritykseen kohdistuvia ympäristövaatimuksia ja niiden vaikutusta yrityksen toimintaan. Aluksi työssä tarkasteltiin ympäristöjärjestelmästandardien sisältöjä ja niiden eroja. Työssä käsiteltiin myös erilaisia elinkaarijohtamisen malleja, joita voidaan hyödyntää yrityksen kokonaisvaltaisessa ympäristöjärjestelmässä. Työssä tarkasteltiin myös sidosryhmien vaikutusta yrityksen ympäristötoimintaan. Kattilalaitostoimittajan tärkeimpiä asiakkaita ovat sellu- ja paperiteollisuus. Näihin yrityksiin on kohdistunut runsaan kymmenen vuoden aikana paineita ympäristötoiminnan tehostamiseksi. Tämän kehityksen seurauksena vastaavat tehostamispaineet ovat siirtymässä myös alihankkijoille, kuten kattilaitostoimittajille. Tehokkaan ympäristöjohtamisen takaamiseksi työssä määriteltiin ympäristövastuut ja –valtuudet sekä ympäristöpäämäärät ja –tavoitteet. Lisäksi tunnistettiin yrityksen toimintaan liittyvät ympäristönäkökohdat ja –riskit. Työn yhteydessä laadittiin ympäristöjärjestelmän luonnos, ja se sisältää jatkuvan parantamisen periaatteen. Työn yhteydessä laadittiin lisäksi Kvaerner Pulping Oy:n koelaitokselle ympäristölupahakemus. Työssä on kuvattu koelaitosta ja sen ympäristölupahakemukseen liittyviä asioita esimerkkinä parantuneesta ympäristöasioiden hoidosta.

Environmental Monitoring using Image Analysis

Tärkeä tehtävä ympäristön tarkkailussa on arvioida ympäristön nykyinen tila ja ihmisen siihen aiheuttamat muutokset sekä analysoida ja etsiä näiden yhtenäiset suhteet. Ympäristön muuttumista voidaan hallita keräämällä ja analysoimalla tietoa. Tässä diplomityössä on tutkittu vesikasvillisuudessa hai vainuja muutoksia käyttäen etäältä hankittua mittausdataa ja kuvan analysointimenetelmiä. Ympäristön tarkkailuun on käytetty Suomen suurimmasta järvestä Saimaasta vuosina 1996 ja 1999 otettuja ilmakuvia. Ensimmäinen kuva-analyysin vaihe on geometrinen korjaus, jonka tarkoituksena on kohdistaa ja suhteuttaa otetut kuvat samaan koordinaattijärjestelmään. Toinen vaihe on kohdistaa vastaavat paikalliset alueet ja tunnistaa kasvillisuuden muuttuminen. Kasvillisuuden tunnistamiseen on käytetty erilaisia lähestymistapoja sisältäen valvottuja ja valvomattomia tunnistustapoja. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin aitoa, kohinoista mittausdataa, minkä perusteella tehdyt kokeet antoivat hyviä tuloksia tutkimuksen onnistumisesta.

An Evaluation of the Paper Profile - a comparative assessment of the applicability of an emerging environmental communication tool in pulp and paper industry

Diplomityön tavoitteena oli arvioida uutta sellu-, paperi- ja kartonkiteollisuuden Paper Profile -ympäristötuoteselostetta. Paper Profilen tarkoituksena on tarjota paperiteollisuuden asiakkaille ja muille kiinnostuneilla sidosryhmille yhtenäistä ympäristöinformaatiota koskien paperituotteiden koostumusta ja tuotteiden tärkeimpiä ympäristöparametrejä. Työn tärkein tavoite oli arvioida kriittisesti Paper Profilea ja verrata konseptia ISO:n, Kansainvälisen stardardisoimisliiton tuoteselosteeseen sekä löytää konseptien yhtäläisyydet ja erot. Tärkein tehtävä oli tunnistaa ne avaintekijät, joiden avulla Paper Profile -tuoteselostetta voitaisiin pitää yhtenevänä ISO/TR 14025 teknisen raportin kanssa. Lisäksi Paper Profile -tuoteselosteen mahdolliset kehittämistarpeet arvioitiin ISO-tuoteselosteen näkökulmasta. Työn toinen tavoite oli kerätä ja analysoida uuteen tuoteselosteeseen liittyvä asiakaspalaute ja verrata sitä Stora Enson tehtaiden ympäristöpäälliköiden antamiin Paper Profilea koskeviin kommentteihin. Työn tuloksena huomattiin, että Paper Profile -konsepti sellaisenaan ei ole kovin informatiivinen vaan tuoteseloste jättää monia ympäristökysymyksiä avoimeksi. Siitä huolimatta Paper Profile tarjoaa riittävän taustan eri paperituotteiden ympäristökuormitusten keskinäiselle vertailuille. Konseptin viestinnällinen näkökulma paranisi huomattavasti, jos tuoteselosteeseen lisättäisiin kolmannen osapuolen verifiointi. Lisäksi referenssiarvot kertoisivat asiakkaille paremmin esitettyjen parametrien taustoista. Stora Enson tehtaiden ympäristöpäälliköiden, samoin kuin asiakkaidenkin mielestä Paper Profile on yleisesti ottaen potentiaalinen ympäristöviestinnän työkalu, mutta silti konseptiin ehdotettiin joitakin pieniä muutoksia. Avoinna olevat metsäsertifiointikysymykset ja niiden puutteellinen tiedottaminen tuoteselosteessa puhututtivat sekä tehtaiden henkilöstöä että yritysasiakkaita.

Adaptive MCMC methods with applications in environmental and geophysical models

This work presents new, efficient Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation methods for statistical analysis in various modelling applications. When using MCMC methods, the model is simulated repeatedly to explore the probability distribution describing the uncertainties in model parameters and predictions. In adaptive MCMC methods based on the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm, the proposal distribution needed by the algorithm learns from the target distribution as the simulation proceeds. Adaptive MCMC methods have been subject of intensive research lately, as they open a way for essentially easier use of the methodology. The lack of user-friendly computer programs has been a main obstacle for wider acceptance of the methods. This work provides two new adaptive MCMC methods: DRAM and AARJ. The DRAM method has been built especially to work in high dimensional and non-linear problems. The AARJ method is an extension to DRAM for model selection problems, where the mathematical formulation of the model is uncertain and we want simultaneously to fit several different models to the same observations. The methods were developed while keeping in mind the needs of modelling applications typical in environmental sciences. The development work has been pursued while working with several application projects. The applications presented in this work are: a winter time oxygen concentration model for Lake Tuusulanjärvi and adaptive control of the aerator; a nutrition model for Lake Pyhäjärvi and lake management planning; validation of the algorithms of the GOMOS ozone remote sensing instrument on board the Envisat satellite of European Space Agency and the study of the effects of aerosol model selection on the GOMOS algorithm.

Lectio praecursoria: Environmental policy evaluation concepts exemplified in the context of the European Unions strategy for better regulation

Lectio praecursoria 3.2.2006 Tampereen yliopisto

IN DUBIO PRO NATURA? A Philosophical Analysis of the Precautionary Principle in Environmental and Health Risk Governance

In this book, I apply a philosophical approach to study the precautionary principle in environmental (and health) risk decision-making. The principle says that unacceptable environmental and health risks should be anticipated, and they ought to be forestalled before the damage comes to fruition even if scientific understanding of the risks is inadequate. The study consists of introductory chapters, summary and seven original publications which aim at explicating the principle, critically analysing the debate on the principle, and constructing a basis for the well-founded use of the principle. Papers I-V present the main thesis of this research. In the two last papers, the discussion is widened to new directions. The starting question is how well the currently embraced precautionary principle stands up to critical philosophical scrutiny. The approach employed is analytical: mainly conceptual, argumentative and ethical. The study draws upon Anglo-American style philosophy on the one hand, and upon sources of law as well as concrete cases and decision-making practices at the European Union level and in its member countries on the other. The framework is environmental (and health) risk governance, including the related law and policy. The main thesis of this study is that the debate on the precautionary principle needs to be shifted from the question of whether the principle (or its weak or strong interpretation) is well-grounded in general to questions about the theoretical plausibility and ethical and socio-political justifiability of specific understandings of the principle. The real picture of the precautionary principle is more complex than that found (i.e. presumed) in much of the current academic, political and public debate surrounding it. While certain presumptions and interpretations of the principle are found to be sound, others are theoretically flawed or include serious practical problems. The analysis discloses conceptual and ethical presumptions and elementary understandings of the precautionary principle, critically assesses current practices invoked in the name of the precautionary principle and public participation, and seeks to build bridges between precaution, engagement and philosophical ethics. Hence, it is intended to provide a sound basis upon which subsequent academic scrutiny can build.

Spatiotemporal Aspects of Environmental Monitoring in the Complex Coastal Region of Southwest Finland

The management and conservation of coastal waters in the Baltic is challenged by a number of complex environmental problems, including eutrophication and habitat degradation. Demands for a more holistic, integrated and adaptive framework of ecosystem-based management emphasize the importance of appropriate information on the status and changes of the aquatic ecosystems. The thesis focuses on the spatiotemporal aspects of environmental monitoring in the extensive and geomorphologically complex coastal region of SW Finland, where the acquisition of spatially and temporally representative monitoring data is inherently challenging. Furthermore, the region is subject to multiple human interests and uses. A holistic geographical approach is emphasized, as it is ultimately the physical conditions that set the frame for any human activity. Characteristics of the coastal environment were examined using water quality data from the database of the Finnish environmental administration and Landsat TM/ETM+ images. A basic feature of the complex aquatic environment in the Archipelago Sea is its high spatial and temporal variability; this foregrounds the importance of geographical information as a basis of environmental assessments. While evidence of a consistent water turbidity pattern was observed, the coastal hydrodynamic realm is also characterized by high spatial and temporal variability. It is therefore also crucial to consider the spatial and temporal representativeness of field monitoring data. Remote sensing may facilitate evaluation of hydrodynamic conditions in the coastal region and the spatial extrapolation of in situ data despite their restrictions. Additionally, remotely sensed images can be used in the mapping of many of those coastal habitats that need to be considered in environmental management. With regard to surface water monitoring, only a small fraction of the currently available data stored in the Hertta-PIVET register can be used effectively in scientific studies and environmental assessments. Long-term consistent data collection from established sampling stations should be emphasized but research-type seasonal assessments producing abundant data should also be encouraged. Thus a more comprehensive coordination of field work efforts is called for. The integration of remote sensing and various field measurement techniques would be especially useful in the complex coastal waters. The integration and development of monitoring system in Finnish coastal areas also requires further scientific assesement of monitoring practices. A holistic approach to the gathering and management of environmental monitoring data could be a cost-effective way of serving a multitude of information needs, and would fit the holistic, ecosystem-based management regimes that are currently being strongly promoted in Europe.

Assessment of Environmental Impacts of Power Generation

Through indisputable evidence of climate change and its link to the greenhouse gas emissions comes the necessity for change in energy production infrastructure during the coming decades. Through political conventions and restrictions energy industry is pushed toward using bigger share of renewable energy sources as energy supply. In addition to climate change, sustainable energy supply is another major issue for future development plans, but neither of these should come with unbearable price. All the power production types have environmental effects as well as strengths and weaknesses. Although each change comes with a price, right track in minimising the environmental impacts and energy supply security can be found by combining all possible low-carbon technologies and by improving energy efficiency in all sectors, for creating a new power production infrastructure of tolerable energy price and of minor environmental effects. GEMIS-Global Emission Model for Integrated Systems is a life-cycle analysis program which was used in this thesis to make indicative energy models for Finland’s future energy supply. Results indicate that the energy supply must comprise both high capacity nuclear power as well as large variation of renewable energy sources for minimization of all environmental effects and keeping energy price reasonable.

Developing the environmental marketing of an industrial company

The objective of this study was to examine how the customers of Larox Flowsys value environmental issues and how environmental issues affect their purchasing behaviour. A comparison between Larox peristaltic pumps and competing pump brands and types was also made in order to find out whether LPP pumps possess some more environmentally beneficial features that other pumps do not have. Finally, if the answers to the first two research questions show that a need for a new marketing message does exist, then the final stage is to select the most appropriate environmental arguments for Larox Flowsys. The empirical data in the study was collected from several different sources, but the main sources were the customer interviews and the outsourced market research. The data was analysed mainly by using content analysis, but theme formation and quantification were also utilized. The results showed that the customers do not consider environmental issues as a main purchasing criterion, but they may well be the criterion that differentiates the product from competing ones. The comparison proved that LPP pumps do possess some significant environmental benefits over competing pumps and therefore, the prerequisite for the use of environmental arguments exists. The final stage in the study was to select the proper environmental arguments for Larox Flowsys.

Evolutionary Ecology of Mountain Birch in Subarctic Stress Gradients: Interplay of Biotic and Abiotic Factors in Plant-Plant Interactions and Evolutionary Processes

In nature, variation for example in herbivory, wind exposure, moisture and pollution impact often creates variation in physiological stress and plant productivity. This variation is seldom clear-cut, but rather results in clines of decreasing growth and productivity towards the high-stress end. These clines of unidirectionally changing stress are generally known as ‘stress gradients’. Through its effect on plant performance, stress has the capacity to fundamentally alter the ecological relationships between individuals, and through variation in survival and reproduction it also causes evolutionary change, i.e. local adaptations to stress and eventually speciation. In certain conditions local adaptations to environmental stress have been documented in a matter of just a few generations. In plant-plant interactions, intensities of both negative interactions (competition) and positive ones (facilitation) are expected to vary along stress gradients. The stress-gradient hypothesis (SGH) suggests that net facilitation will be strongest in conditions of high biotic and abiotic stress, while a more recent ‘humpback’ model predicts strongest net facilitation at intermediate levels of stress. Plant interactions on stress gradients, however, are affected by a multitude of confounding factors, making studies of facilitation-related theories challenging. Among these factors are plant ontogeny, spatial scale, and local adaptation to stress. The last of these has very rarely been included in facilitation studies, despite the potential co-occurrence of local adaptations and changes in net facilitation in stress gradients. Current theory would predict both competitive effects and facilitative responses to be weakest in populations locally adapted to withstand high abiotic stress. This thesis is based on six experiments, conducted both in greenhouses and in the field in Russia, Norway and Finland, with mountain birch (Betula pubescens subsp. czerepanovii) as the model species. The aims were to study potential local adaptations in multiple stress gradients (both natural and anthropogenic), changes in plant-plant interactions under conditions of varying stress (as predicted by SGH), potential mechanisms behind intraspecific facilitation, and factors confounding plant-plant facilitation, such as spatiotemporal, ontogenetic, and genetic differences. I found rapid evolutionary adaptations (occurring within a time-span of 60 to 70 years) towards heavy-metal resistance around two copper-nickel smelters, a phenomenon that has resulted in a trade-off of decreased performance in pristine conditions. Heavy-metal-adapted individuals had lowered nickel uptake, indicating a possible mechanism behind the detected resistance. Seedlings adapted to heavy-metal toxicity were not co-resistant to others forms of abiotic stress, but showed co-resistance to biotic stress by being consumed to a lesser extent by insect herbivores. Conversely, populations from conditions of high natural stress (wind, drought etc.) showed no local adaptations, despite much longer evolutionary time scales. Due to decreasing emissions, I was unable to test SGH in the pollution gradients. In natural stress gradients, however, plant performance was in accordance with SGH, with the strongest host-seedling facilitation found at the high-stress sites in two different stress gradients. Factors confounding this pattern included (1) plant size / ontogenetic status, with seedling-seedling interactions being competition dominated and host-seedling interactions potentially switching towards competition with seedling growth, and (2) spatial distance, with competition dominating at very short planting distances, and facilitation being strongest at a distance of circa ¼ benefactor height. I found no evidence for changes in facilitation with respect to the evolutionary histories of plant populations. Despite the support for SGH, it may be that the ‘humpback’ model is more relevant when the main stressor is resource-related, while what I studied were the effects of ‘non-resource’ stressors (i.e. heavy-metal pollution and wind). The results have potential practical applications: the utilisation of locally adapted seedlings and plant facilitation may increase the success of future restoration efforts in industrial barrens as well as in other wind-exposed sites. The findings also have implications with regard to the effects of global change in subarctic environments: the documented potential by mountain birch for rapid evolutionary change, together with the general lack of evolutionary ‘dead ends’, due to not (over)specialising to current natural conditions, increase the chances of this crucial forest-forming tree persisting even under the anticipated climate change.