Show me your brain! Stories of interdisciplinary knowledge creation in practice. Experiences and observations from Aalto Design Factory, Finland.

This dissertation centres on the themes of knowledge creation, interdisciplinarity and knowledge work. My research approaches interdisciplinary knowledge creation (IKC) as practical situated activity. I argue that by approaching IKC from the practice-based perspective makes it possible to “deconstruct” how knowledge creation actually happens, and demystify its strong intellectual, mentalistic and expertise-based connotations. I have rendered the work of the observed knowledge workers into something ordinary, accessible and routinized. Consequently this has made it possible to grasp the pragmatic challenges as well the concrete drivers of such activity. Thus the effective way of organizing such activities becomes a question of organizing and leading effective everyday practices. To achieve that end, I have conducted ethnographic research of one explicitly interdisciplinary space within higher education, Aalto Design Factory in Helsinki, Finland, where I observed how students from different disciplines collaborated in new product development projects. I argue that IKC is a multi-dimensional construct that intertwines a particular way of doing; a way of experiencing; a way of embodied being; and a way of reflecting on the very doing itself. This places emphasis not only the practices themselves, but also on the way the individual experiences the practices, as this directly affects how the individual practices. My findings suggest that in order to effectively organize and execute knowledge creation activities organizations need to better accept and manage the emergent diversity and complexity inherent in such activities. In order to accomplish this, I highlight the importance of understanding and using a variety of (material) objects, the centrality of mundane everyday practices, the acceptance of contradictions and negotiations well as the role of management that is involved and engaged. To succeed in interdisciplinary knowledge creation is to lead not only by example, but also by being very much present in the very everyday practices that make it happen.

Näkökulmia 3D-tulostuksen opetukseen ja koulutukseen

Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, is globally one of most interesting area in developing of manufacturing technologies. This technology is suitable for fabrication off industrial products and it interests actors in fields of computer sciences, economics, medical sciences and design&arts. Additive manufacturing is often referred as third industrial revolution: first revolution was invention of steam engines in 18th century and second was industrial revolution started by Henry Ford in 1920s. Companies should be able to test suitability of their products for additive manufacturing and 3D printing but also how much better products could be when products are totally re-designed so that all potential of this new technology can be utilized. This is where education has its importance; new generations who enter working life should be educated to know of additive manufacturing and 3D printing, its advantages but also of it limits. There has to be also possibility to educate industry and people already working there, so that industrial implementation could be done successfully. This is especially very valid for Finland. Education is strongly needed so that Finnish industry can maintain its competence in global markets. Role of education is extremely important when a new technology is industrially implemented. Additive manufacturing and 3D printing offers freedom to design new products, production and generally ways of doing things. Development, planning and execution of education for additive manufacturing and 3D printing is challenging as this area develops very fast. New innovations are coming almost every month. Planning of education for additive manufacturing and 3D printing requires collection pieces of data from various of sources. Additive manufacturing and 3D printing industry and its development has to be followed frequently, and material for additive manufacturing and 3D printing has to be renewed frequently.

Omistajuuden vaikutus yrityksen toimintaan ja tulokseen

Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää miten omistajuus vaikuttaa yrityksen toimintaan ja tulokseen ja syventää näkökulmaa omistajan vaikutuksesta yrityksen menestymiseen. Tutkimus tehtiin kvalitatiivisen ja kvantitatiivisen tutkimusmenetelmän yhdistelmällä, joka mahdollistaa laajemman näkökulman tutkittavaan asiaan ja tuo tutkimukseen luotettavuutta. Omistajan kompetenssilla toimia aktiivisena omistajana sekä hallita erilaisia liiketoimintariske-jä on suuri merkitys. Kestävä menestys, uudistuminen ja yrityksen arvon luominen vaativat niin asiantuntemusta, näkemyksiä, sitoutunutta riskirahoitusta kuin vuorovaikutustaitoja. Omis-tajalla on vaikutusvalta osaavan johdon ja henkilöstön motivaation ylläpysymiseen ja tahtoti-laan toimia yrityksen etujen mukaisesti ja yritykseen sitoutuneena. Ymmärtämällä omistamansa yrityksen kilpailuedut ja hallitsemalla organisatoriset riskit, omis-taja voi vaikuttaa valitsemansa roolin kautta yrityksen menestykseen ja tuottoarvon kasvuun. Tutkimuksen tulokset viittaavat myös siihen, että henkilöstön kokemat positiiviset psykologi-sen ja sosiaalisen omistajuuden tunteet selittävät onnistumisia.

Towards a contextual understanding of B2B salespeople's selling competencies – An exploratory study among purchasing decision-makers of internationally-oriented technology firms

ABSTRACT Towards a contextual understanding of B2B salespeople’s selling competencies − an exploratory study among purchasing decision-makers of internationally-oriented technology firms The characteristics of modern selling can be classified as follows: customer retention and loyalty targets, database and knowledge management, customer relationship management, marketing activities, problem solving and system selling, and satisfying needs and creating value. For salespeople to be successful in this environment, they need a wide range of competencies. Salespeople’s selling skills are well documented in seller side literature through quantitative methods, but the knowledge, skills and competencies from the buyer’s perspective are under-researched. The existing research on selling competencies should be broadened and updated through a qualitative research perspective due to the dynamic nature and the contextual dependence of selling competencies. The purpose of the study is to increase understanding of the professional salesperson’s selling competencies from the industrial purchasing decision- makers’ viewpoint within the relationship selling context. In this study, competencies are defined as sales-related knowledge and skills. The scope of the study includes goods, materials and services managed by a company’s purchasing function and used by an organization on a daily basis. The abductive approach and ‘systematic combining’ have been applied as a research strategy. In this research, data were generated through semi- structured, person-to-person interviews and open-ended questions. The study was conducted among purchasing decision-makers in the technology industry in Finland. The branches consisted of the electronics and electro-technical industries and the mechanical engineering and metals industries. A total of 30 companies and one purchasing decision-maker from each company were purposively chosen for the sampling. The sample covers different company sizes based on their revenues, their differing structures – varying from public to family companies –that represent domestic and international ownerships. Before analyzing the data, they were organized by the purchasing orientations of the buyers: the buying, procurement or supply management orientation. Thematic analysis was chosen as the analysis method. After analyzing the data, the results were contrasted with the theory. There was a continuous interaction between the empirical data and the theory. Based on the findings, a total of 19 major knowledge and skills were identified from the buyers’ perspective. The specific knowledge and skills from the viewpoint of customers’ prevalent purchasing orientations were divided into two categories, generic and contextual. The generic knowledge and skills apply to all purchasing orientations, and the contextual knowledge and skills depend on customers’ prevalent purchasing orientations. Generic knowledge and skills relate to price setting, negotiation, communication and interaction skills, while contextual ones relate to knowledge brokering, ability to present solutions and relationship skills. Buying-oriented buyers value salespeople who are ‘action oriented experts, however at a bit of an arm’s length’, procurement buyers value salespeople who are ‘experts deeply dedicated to the customer and fostering the relationship’ and supply management buyers value salespeople who are ‘corporate-oriented experts’. In addition, the buyer’s perceptions on knowledge and selling skills differ from the seller’s ones. The buyer side emphasizes managing the subject matter, consisting of the expertise, understanding the customers’ business and needs, creating a customized solution and creating value, reliability and an ability to build long-term relationships, while the seller side emphasizes communica- tion, interaction and salesmanship skills. The study integrates the selling skills of the current three-component model− technical knowledge, salesmanship skills, interpersonal skills− and relationship skills and purchasing orientations, into a selling competency model. The findings deepen and update the content of these knowledges and skills in the B2B setting and create new insights into them from the buyer’s perspective, and thus the study increases contextual understanding of selling competencies. It generates new knowledge of the salesperson’s competencies for the relationship selling and personal selling and sales management literature. It also adds knowledge of the buying orientations to the buying behavior literature. The findings challenge sales management to perceive salespeople’s selling skills both from a contingency and competence perspective. The study has several managerial implications: it increases understanding of what the critical selling knowledge and skills from the buyer’s point of view are, understanding of how salespeople effectively implement the relationship marketing concept, sales management’s knowledge of how to manage the sales process more effectively and efficiently, and the knowledge of how sales management should develop a salesperson’s selling competencies when managing and developing the sales force. Keywords: selling competencies, knowledge, selling skills, relationship skills, purchasing orientations, B2B selling, abductive approach, technology firms

Cross Listing of a Finnish Company on an Exchange in the United States of America

Finnish companies cross listing in the United States is an exceptional phenomenon. This study examines the cross listing decision, cross listing choice and cross listing process with associated challenges and critical factors. The aim is to create an in-depth understanding of the cross listing process and the required financial information. Based on that, the aim is to establish the process phases with the challenges and the critical factors that ought to be considered be- fore establishing the process plus re-evaluated and further considered at points in time during the process. The empirical part of this study is conducted as a qualitative study. The research data was collected through the adoption of two approaches, which are the interview approach and the textual data approach. The interviews were conducted with Finnish practitioners in the field of accounting and finance. The textual data was from publicly available publications of this phenomenon by the two BIG5 accounting companies worldwide. The results of this study demonstrate the benefits of cross listing in the U.S. are the better growth opportunities, the reduction of cost of capital and the production of higher quality financial information. In the decision making process companies should assess whether the benefits exceed the increased costs, the pressure for performance, the uncertainty of market recognition and the requirements of management. The exchange listing is seen as the most favourable cross listing choice for Finnish companies. The establishment of the processes for producing reliable, transparent and timely financial information was seen as both highly critical and very challenging. The critical success factors relating to the cross listing phases are the assessment and planning as well as the right mix of experiences and expertise. The timing plays important role in the process. The results mainly corroborate the literature concerning cross listing decision and choice. This study contributes to the literature on the cross listing process offering a useful model for the phases of the cross listing process.

Customer Knowledge Transfer in MNCs

The purpose of this Master’s thesis was to study customer knowledge transfer processes in multinational corporations (MNCs). The main objective was to examine how customer knowledge is transferred in MNCs and what kind of factors enhance or inhibit the knowledge transfer process, and to create a framework on the basis of the existing literature and the empirical findings. In this thesis the factors were organized according to whether they are properties of the unit involved in knowledge management, properties of relationships between the units or properties of the knowledge itself. There are various properties that influence knowledge transfer but in this thesis the focus was on examining the relevant findings from the customer knowledge viewpoint. Empirical results show that internal fragmentation in the MNC seems to be inherent in this type of organization, and may cause many problems in customer knowledge transfer and utilization. These knowledge transfer inhibitors rise from the organization’s properties: it’s absorptive capacity, motivation, organizational culture, and the two dimensions of knowledge. However, in spite of the inherent forces causing internal fragmentation and inhibiting knowledge transfer, moderate customer knowledge and expertise codification, cooperative working practices among the experts, and socialization mechanisms posed by the headquarters seem to help maintain customer knowledge transfer, and value creation in the long-term relationship. This value creation can be seen to be based on accessing and integrating a wide variety of knowledge resources in order to create a coherent product and service offering.

Data analysis tools and methods for DNA microarray and high-throughput sequencing data

The recent rapid development of biotechnological approaches has enabled the production of large whole genome level biological data sets. In order to handle thesedata sets, reliable and efficient automated tools and methods for data processingand result interpretation are required. Bioinformatics, as the field of studying andprocessing biological data, tries to answer this need by combining methods and approaches across computer science, statistics, mathematics and engineering to studyand process biological data. The need is also increasing for tools that can be used by the biological researchers themselves who may not have a strong statistical or computational background, which requires creating tools and pipelines with intuitive user interfaces, robust analysis workflows and strong emphasis on result reportingand visualization. Within this thesis, several data analysis tools and methods have been developed for analyzing high-throughput biological data sets. These approaches, coveringseveral aspects of high-throughput data analysis, are specifically aimed for gene expression and genotyping data although in principle they are suitable for analyzing other data types as well. Coherent handling of the data across the various data analysis steps is highly important in order to ensure robust and reliable results. Thus,robust data analysis workflows are also described, putting the developed tools andmethods into a wider context. The choice of the correct analysis method may also depend on the properties of the specific data setandthereforeguidelinesforchoosing an optimal method are given. The data analysis tools, methods and workflows developed within this thesis have been applied to several research studies, of which two representative examplesare included in the thesis. The first study focuses on spermatogenesis in murinetestis and the second one examines cell lineage specification in mouse embryonicstem cells.

Kohti parempaa suorituskykyä – Työkalupakki innovaatiokyvykkyyden mittaamiseen ja johtamiseen

Yrityksen kilpailukyvyn ylläpitämiseen, selviytymiseen ja kasvuun tarvitaan innovaatiotoimintaa – kykyä luoda innovaatioita ja kykyä kehittää niitä ominaisuuksia, joita innovaatioiden luomiseen vaaditaan. Innovaatiokyvykkyyden kehittäminen vaatii yritykseltä kykyä oppia menneestä ja virheistä sekä hyödyntää tätä oppia uusien innovaatioiden tuottamiseksi. Innovaatiokyvykkyyden kohdalla pätee monissa tilanteissa toimivaksi osoitettu lausahdus – mitä et mittaa, sitä et voi johtaa. Pk-yrityksille on kuitenkin tarjolla vähän ohjeita ja työkaluja, joita ne voivat hyödyntää innovaatiokyvykkyyden mittaamisessa ja sitä kautta sekä tuottavuuden että suorituskyvyn kehittämisessä ja johtamisessa. Loppuraportti on koottu Työsuojelurahaston ja Lappeenrannan teknillisen yliopiston rahoittaman hankkeen ”Innovaatiokyvykkyyden mittaaminen ja johtaminen – Kohti parempaa tuottavuutta ja suorituskykyä” tulosten pohjalta. Hankkeen tavoitteena oli tutkia miten innovaatiokyvykkyyttä ja sen vaikutuksia tulisi mitata pk-yrityksissä. Hankkeen tulokset pohjautuvat monipuoliseen tutkimusaineistoon. Innovaatiokyvykkyyden mittaamista käsittelevään kyselyyn vastasi lähes 300 pk-yritysten johdon ja henkilöstön edustajaa. Sekundäärisenä datana hyödynnettiin ainestoa, jossa lähes 200 HR-ammattilaista tarjosi näkemyksensä edustamansa organisaation suorituskyvyn eri osa-alueista. Lisäksi teemahaastatteluiden avulla kerättiin kyselyiden tuloksia syventävää aineistoa viidestä eri yrityksestä. Innovaatiokyvykkyyden mittareita testattiin kolmessa yrityksessä minkä lisäksi hyödynnettiin laaja-alaisesti jo olemassa olevaa kirjallisuutta innovaatiokyvykkyyden mittaamisesta ja mittaristoista. Eri aineistoista saadut tulokset taustoinen ja perusteluineen on esitetty loppuraportissa, jonka lopputulemana esitetään malli innovaatiokyvykkyyden mittaamiseen ja johtamiseen pk-yrityksissä. Kehitetyssä mallissa on tehty ehdotuksia siitä, millaisia mittareita minkäkin tyyppisten pk-yritysten kannattaa hyödyntää. Tällä tavoin pk-yritysten on helpompi tehdä päätöksiä siitä, mitkä mittarit valita omaan käyttöönsä. Malli myös lisää ymmärrystä siitä, että tarvittava mittaamisen taso vaihtelee eri typpisissä pk-yrityksissä. Joillekin riittää yksi mittari ja toiset voivat hyödyntää useita monipuolisia mittauskäytänteitä. Loppuraportissa määritellään myös innovaattorityypit pk-yritysten keskuudessa, mikä auttaa pk-yritysten edustajia ymmärtämään, että innovaatiokyvykkyyden kehittäminen voi keskittyä vain tiettyihin innovaatiokyvykkyyden osa-alueisiin. Eri tyyppisillä pk-yrityksillä on erilaisia vahvuuksia, joihin myös innovaatiokyvykkyyden kehittämisen ja mittaamisen tulisi kohdistua. Lisäksi loppuraportissa on luokiteltu erityyppisiä mittareita innovaatiokyvykkyyden mittaamiseen. Tämä helpottaa mittareiden valintaa, kun pk-yritykset voivat valita omaan tilanteeseen sopivat mittarit.

Näin opetan lisäävää valmistusta ja 3D-tulostusta: Pohdintoja uuden teknologian opetuksesta ja koulutuksesta

Additive manufacturing (shortened as AM), or more commonly 3D printing, consists of wide variety of different modern manufacturing technologies. AM is based on direct printing of a digital 3D model to a final product which is fabricated adding material layer by layer. This is from where term additive manufacturing has its origin. It is not only material what is added, but it is also value, properties etc. which are added. AM enables production of different and even better products compared to conventional manufacturing technologies. An estimation of potential of additive manufacturing can be gathered by considering the potential of laser cutting, which is one of the most widely used modern manufacturing technologies. This technique has been used over 40 years, and whole market around this technology is at the moment c. four billion euros and yearly growth is around 10 %. One factor affecting this success of laser cutting is that laser cutting enables radical improvements to products made of flat sheet. AM and 3D printing will do the same for three dimensional parts. Laser devices, which are at the moment used in 3D printing, are globally at the moment only around 1% of all laser devices used in any fabrication technology, so even with a cautious estimate the potential growth of at least 100 % is coming in next few years. Role of education is very important, when this kind of modern technology is industrially implemented. When both generation entering to work life and also generation who has been a while in work life understands new technology, its potential and limitations, this is the point when also product design can be rethought Potential of product design is driving force for wide use of additive manufacturing and 3D printing. Utilization of additive manufacturing and 3D printing is also opportunity for Finland and Finnish industry. This technology can save Finnish manufacturing industry. This technique has stron potential, as Finland has traditionally strong industrial know-how and good ICT knowledge.

Kaakkoissuomalaisten yritysten bioliiketoimintakyvykkyys – Biotalouden innovaatioverkoston muodostuminen ja metsäbiojalostamokonsepti

Tämän raportin tavoitteena on selvittää Kaakkois-Suomen alueella toimivien yritysten kyvykkyyksiä ja edellytyksiä bioliiketoiminnan suhteen ja luoda katsaus alueen elinkeinoelämän mahdollisuuksista siirryttäessä biotalouteen. Analyysin kytkemiseksi laajempaan kokonaiskuvaan alan kehityksestä, käsitellään myös laajemmalla tasolla muutosajureita bioliiketoimintaan. Teollista murrosta kohti bioliiketoimintaa voidaan pitää yhtenä merkittävimmistä käynnissä olevista muutoksista perinteisillä teollisilla toimialoilla. Tämä korostuu alueilla, joilla liiketoiminta on keskittynyt energia- ja raaka-aineintensiivisille teollisuudenaloille. Suomalaisen metsäteollisuuden kannattavuutta ovat heikentäneet kypsä markkinatilanne, ylikapasiteetti, tehostuva halpatuotanto ja etelän puuplantaasit, energian hinnan nousu (Hetemäki 2006) sekä yleinen taloustilanne (Wessman 2012). Metsäteollisuuteen painottuneessa Kaakkois-Suomessa rakennemuutoksen vaikutukset ovat nähtävissä selvästi. Bioliiketoiminnan ajureina toimivat muun muassa ympäristönäkökulmat ja lainsäädäntö, sekä energian hintakehityksen epävarmuus ja fossiilisten polttoaineiden kallistuminen (Mikkanen 2011). Bioliiketoiminnan osalta raportissa keskitytään biojalostukseen, jossa tuotetaan mahdollisimman korkean jalostusarvon tuotteita. Esitellyt liiketoimintamallit ja biotalouden innovaatioverkosto on rakennettu tällä taustaolettamuksella, eivätkä täten ole suoraan hyödynnettävissä muun muassa alhaisen jalostusarvon tuotantoon tai mekaaniseen metsäteollisuuteen. Bioliiketoimintaan liittyy tiettyjä erityispiirteitä, jotka myös toimivat edellytyksenä niin sanotun biotalouden syntymiselle. Bioliiketoimintaa voidaan harjoittaa monella eri tavalla, useilla eri toimialoilla, ja se edellyttää kehitystä ja linkityksiä toimialoille, jotka luovat muun muassa teknologiset mahdollisuudet toiminnalle. Näin ollen esimerkiksi cleantech-ratkaisuilla on merkittävä rooli bioliiketoiminnassa. Monet yritykset harjoittavat jo nykyisellään bioliiketoimintaa, sitä välttämättä itse edes tiedostamatta. Raportissa esitellään metsäbiomassaa hyödyntävän biojalostamotoiminnan mahdollisia liiketoimintamalleja Kaakkois-Suomessa sekä esimerkki bioalan klusteritoiminnasta Tanskassa. Raportissa korostetaan toimialojen välistä, esimerkiksi klusteri-, yhteistyötä. Tätä alleviivataan biotalouden innovaatioverkostoja käsittelevässä kappaleessa, joka osoittaa tarpeen nykyisten verkostojen muuntumiselle biotalouteen pyrittäessä. Samalla käydään läpi verkoston muuntautumisen kompastuskiviä ja esitellään mahdollista biotalouden kannalta sopivaa verkostorakennetta. Kaakkoissuomalaisten yritysten bioliiketoimintakyvykkyyttä analysoidaan BIOTULI (Biojalostamon uudet tuotteet ja liiketoimintamallit) -hankkeen puitteissa toteutetun kyselyn tulosten pohjalta. Kysely lähetettiin keväällä 2012 yhteensä 288 kaakkoissuomalaiselle bioliiketoiminnan arvoverkkoon nyt tai tulevaisuudessa mahdollisesti kuuluvalle yritykselle. Vastauksia saatiin yhteensä 66 (23 %). Kysely sisälsi 32 kysymystä ja sen pohjalta tehtyihin tärkeimpiin havaintoihin kuuluvat se, että yrityskenttä tiedostaa vahvasti biotaloussiirtymän olevan tulossa ja että alueen yritykset ovat halukkaita verkottumaan sekä keskenään että alueen ulkopuolelle muodostaakseen toimivan biotalousklusterin. Vastaajista noin puolet edusti metalliteollisuuden tai maatalouden yritystä, joiden vastauksia on analysoitu raportissa erikseen toimialakohtaisesti.

University students’ regulation of learning and text processing – examples from medical and teacher education

The general aim of the thesis was to study university students’ learning from the perspective of regulation of learning and text processing. The data were collected from the two academic disciplines of medical and teacher education, which share the features of highly scheduled study, a multidisciplinary character, a complex relationship between theory and practice and a professional nature. Contemporary information society poses new challenges for learning, as it is not possible to learn all the information needed in a profession during a study programme. Therefore, it is increasingly important to learn how to think and learn independently, how to recognise gaps in and update one’s knowledge and how to deal with the huge amount of constantly changing information. In other words, it is critical to regulate one’s learning and to process text effectively. The thesis comprises five sub-studies that employed cross-sectional, longitudinal and experimental designs and multiple methods, from surveys to eye tracking. Study I examined the connections between students’ study orientations and the ways they regulate their learning. In total, 410 second-, fourth- and sixth-year medical students from two Finnish medical schools participated in the study by completing a questionnaire measuring both general study orientations and regulation strategies. The students were generally deeply oriented towards their studies. However, they regulated their studying externally. Several interesting and theoretically reasonable connections between the variables were found. For instance, self-regulation was positively correlated with deep orientation and achievement orientation and was negatively correlated with non-commitment. However, external regulation was likewise positively correlated with deep orientation and achievement orientation but also with surface orientation and systematic orientation. It is argued that external regulation might function as an effective coping strategy in the cognitively loaded medical curriculum. Study II focused on medical students’ regulation of learning and their conceptions of the learning environment in an innovative medical course where traditional lectures were combined wth problem-based learning (PBL) group work. First-year medical and dental students (N = 153) completed a questionnaire assessing their regulation strategies of learning and views about the PBL group work. The results indicated that external regulation and self-regulation of the learning content were the most typical regulation strategies among the participants. In line with previous studies, self-regulation wasconnected with study success. Strictly organised PBL sessions were not considered as useful as lectures, although the students’ views of the teacher/tutor and the group were mainly positive. Therefore, developers of teaching methods are challenged to think of new solutions that facilitate reflection of one’s learning and that improve the development of self-regulation. In Study III, a person-centred approach to studying regulation strategies was employed, in contrast to the traditional variable-centred approach used in Study I and Study II. The aim of Study III was to identify different regulation strategy profiles among medical students (N = 162) across time and to examine to what extent these profiles predict study success in preclinical studies. Four regulation strategy profiles were identified, and connections with study success were found. Students with the lowest self-regulation and with an increasing lack of regulation performed worse than the other groups. As the person-centred approach enables us to individualise students with diverse regulation patterns, it could be used in supporting student learning and in facilitating the early diagnosis of learning difficulties. In Study IV, 91 student teachers participated in a pre-test/post-test design where they answered open-ended questions about a complex science concept both before and after reading either a traditional, expository science text or a refutational text that prompted the reader to change his/her beliefs according to scientific beliefs about the phenomenon. The student teachers completed a questionnaire concerning their regulation and processing strategies. The results showed that the students’ understanding improved after text reading intervention and that refutational text promoted understanding better than the traditional text. Additionally, regulation and processing strategies were found to be connected with understanding the science phenomenon. A weak trend showed that weaker learners would benefit more from the refutational text. It seems that learners with effective learning strategies are able to pick out the relevant content regardless of the text type, whereas weaker learners might benefit from refutational parts that contrast the most typical misconceptions with scientific views. The purpose of Study V was to use eye tracking to determine how third-year medical studets (n = 39) and internal medicine residents (n = 13) read and solve patient case texts. The results revealed differences between medical students and residents in processing patient case texts; compared to the students, the residents were more accurate in their diagnoses and processed the texts significantly faster and with a lower number of fixations. Different reading patterns were also found. The observed differences between medical students and residents in processing patient case texts could be used in medical education to model expert reasoning and to teach how a good medical text should be constructed. The main findings of the thesis indicate that even among very selected student populations, such as high-achieving medical students or student teachers, there seems to be a lot of variation in regulation strategies of learning and text processing. As these learning strategies are related to successful studying, students enter educational programmes with rather different chances of managing and achieving success. Further, the ways of engaging in learning seldom centre on a single strategy or approach; rather, students seem to combine several strategies to a certain degree. Sometimes, it can be a matter of perspective of which way of learning can be considered best; therefore, the reality of studying in higher education is often more complicated than the simplistic view of self-regulation as a good quality and external regulation as a harmful quality. The beginning of university studies may be stressful for many, as the gap between high school and university studies is huge and those strategies that were adequate during high school might not work as well in higher education. Therefore, it is important to map students’ learning strategies and to encourage them to engage in using high-quality learning strategies from the beginning. Instead of separate courses on learning skills, the integration of these skills into course contents should be considered. Furthermore, learning complex scientific phenomena could be facilitated by paying attention to high-quality learning materials and texts and other support from the learning environment also in the university. Eye tracking seems to have great potential in evaluating performance and growing diagnostic expertise in text processing, although more research using texts as stimulus is needed. Both medical and teacher education programmes and the professions themselves are challenging in terms of their multidisciplinary nature and increasing amounts of information and therefore require good lifelong learning skills during the study period and later in work life.