Metabonomics of human amniotic fluid for prenatal diagnostics

O trabalho apresentado nesta tese teve como principais objectivos contribuir para o conhecimento da composição do líquido amniótico humano (LA), colhido no 2º trimestre de gravidez, assim como investigar possíveis alterações na sua composição devido à ocorrência de patologias pré-natais, recorrendo à metabonómica e procurando, assim, definir novos biomarcadores de doenças da grávida e do feto. Após uma introdução descrevendo o estado da arte relacionado com este trabalho (Capítulo 1) e os princípios das metodologias analíticas usadas (Capítulo 2), seguida de uma descrição dos aspectos experimentais associados a esta tese (Capítulo 3), apresentam-se os resultados da caracterização da composição química do LA (gravidez saudável) por espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN), assim como da monitorização da sua estabilidade durante o armazenamento e após ciclos de congelamento-descongelamento (Capítulo 4). Amostras de LA armazenadas a -20°C registaram alterações significativas, tornando-se estas menos pronunciadas (mas ainda mensuráveis) a -70°C, temperatura recomendada para o armazenamento de LA. Foram também observadas alterações de composição após 1-2 ciclos de congelamento-descongelamento (a ter em conta aquando da reutilização de amostras), assim como à temperatura ambiente (indicando um período máximo de 4h para a manipulação e análise de LA). A aquisição de espectros de RMN de 1H de alta resolução e RMN acoplado (LC-NMR/MS) permitiu a detecção de 75 compostos no LA do 2º trimestre, 6 dos quais detectados pela primeira vez no LA. Experiências de difusão (DOSY) permitiram ainda a caracterização das velocidades de difusão e massas moleculares médias das proteínas mais abundantes. O Capítulo 5 descreve o estudo dos efeitos de malformações fetais (FM) e de cromossomopatias (CD) na composição do LA do 2º trimestre de gravidez. A extensão deste trabalho ao estudo dos efeitos de patologias no LA que ocorrem no 3º trimestre de gravidez é descrita no Capítulo 6, nomeadamente no que se refere ao parto pré-termo (PTD), pré-eclampsia (PE), restrição do crescimento intra-uterino (IUGR), ruptura prematura de membranas (PROM) e diabetes mellitus gestacional (GDM). Como complemento a estes estudos, realizou-se uma análise preliminar da urina materna do 2º trimestre para o estudo de FM e GDM, descrita no Capítulo 7. Para interpretação dos dados analíticos, obtidos por espectroscopia RMN de 1H, cromatografia líquida de ultra eficiência acoplada a espectrometria de massa (UPLC-MS) e espectroscopia do infravermelho médio (MIR), recorreu-se à análise discriminante pelos métodos dos mínimos quadrados parciais e o método dos mínimos quadrados parciais ortogonal (PLS-DA e OPLS-DA) e à correlação espectral. Após análise por validação cruzada de Monte-Carlo (MCCV), os modelos PLS-DA de LA permitiram distinguir as FM dos controlos (sensibilidades 69-85%, especificidades 80-95%, taxas de classificação 80-90%), revelando variações metabólicas ao nível do metabolismo energético, dos metabolismos dos aminoácidos e glícidos assim como possíveis alterações ao nível do funcionamento renal. Observou-se também um grande impacto das FM no perfil metabólico da urina materna (medido por UPLC-MS), tendo no entanto sido registados modelos PLS-DA com menor sensibilidade (40-60%), provavelmente devido ao baixo número de amostras e maior variabilidade da composição da urina (relativamente ao LA). Foram sugeridos possíveis marcadores relacionados com a ocorrência de FM, incluindo lactato, glucose, leucina, valina, glutamina, glutamato, glicoproteínas e conjugados de ácido glucurónico e/ou sulfato e compostos endógenos e/ou exógenos (<1 M) (os últimos visíveis apenas na urina). No LA foram também observadas variações metabólicas devido à ocorrência de vários tipos de cromossomopatias (CD), mas de menor magnitude. Os perfis metabólicos de LA associado a pré- PTD produziram modelos que, apesar do baixo poder de previsão, sugeriram alterações precoces no funcionamento da unidade fetoplacentária, hiperglicémia e stress oxidativo. Os modelos obtidos para os grupos pré- IUGR pré- PE, pré- PROM e pré-diagnóstico GDM (LA e urina materna) registaram baixo poder de previsão, indicando o pouco impacto destas condições na composição do LA e/ou urina do 2º trimestre. Os resultados obtidos demonstram as potencialidades da análise dos perfis metabólicos do LA (e, embora com base em menos estudos, da urina materna) do 2º trimestre para o desenvolvimento de novos e complementares métodos de diagnóstico, nomeadamente para FM e PTD.

Development of infrared spectroscopy for assessing bacterial quality in foods

Rapid and specific detection of foodborne bacteria that can cause food spoilage or illness associated to its consumption is an increasingly important task in food industry. Bacterial detection, identification, and classification are generally performed using traditional methods based on biochemical or serological tests and the molecular methods based on DNA or RNA fingerprints. However, these methodologies are expensive, time consuming and laborious. Infrared spectroscopy is a reliable, rapid, and economic technique which could be explored as a tool for bacterial analysis in the food industry. In this thesis it was evaluated the potential of IR spectroscopy to study the bacterial quality of foods. In Chapter 2, it was developed a calibration model that successfully allowed to predict the bacterial concentration of naturally contaminated cooked ham samples kept at refrigeration temperature during 8 days. In this part, it was developed the methodology that allowed the best reproducibility of spectra from bacteria colonies with minimal sample preparation, which was used in the subsequent work. Several attempts trying different resolutions and number of scans in the IR were made. A spectral resolution of 4 cm-1, with 32 scans were the settings that allowed the best results. Subsequently, in Chapter 3, it was made an attempt to identify 22 different foodborne bacterial genera/species using IR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analysis. The principal component analysis, used as an exploratory technique, allowed to form distinct groups, each one corresponding to a different genus, in most of the cases. Then, a hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to further analyse the group formation and the possibility of distinction between species of the same bacterial genus. It was observed that IR spectroscopy not only is suitable to the distinction of the different genera, but also to differentiate species of the same genus, with the simultaneous use of principal component analysis and cluster analysis techniques. The utilization of IR spectroscopy and multivariate statistical analysis were also investigated in Chapter 4, in order to confirm the presence of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. isolated from contaminated foods, after growth in selective medium. This would allow to substitute the traditional biochemical and serological methods that are used to confirm these pathogens and that delay the obtainment of the results up to 2 days. The obtained results allowed the distinction of 3 different Listeria species and the distinction of Salmonella spp. from other bacteria that can be mistaken with them. Finally, in chapter 5, high pressure processing, an emerging methodology that permits to produce microbiologically safe foods and extend their shelf-life, was applied to 12 foodborne bacteria to determine their resistance and the effects of pressure in cells. A treatment of 300 MPa, during 15 minutes at room temperature was applied. Gram-negative bacteria were inactivated to undetectable levels and Gram-positive showed different resistances. Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus decreased only 2 logs and Listeria innocua decreased about 5 logs. IR spectroscopy was performed in bacterial colonies before and after HPP in order to investigate the alterations of the cellular compounds. It was found that high pressure alters bands assigned to some cellular components as proteins, lipids, oligopolysaccharides, phosphate groups from the cell wall and nucleic acids, suggesting disruption of the cell envelopes. In this work, bacterial quantification and classification, as well as assessment of cellular compounds modification with high pressure processing were successfully performed. Taking this into account, it was showed that IR spectroscopy is a very promising technique to analyse bacteria in a simple and inexpensive manner.

Analysis of the organic matter associated to sea salt : definition of potential molecular markers based on the volatile composition and presence of glycosidic derivatives and polysaccharides

Sea salt is a natural product obtained from the evaporation of seawater in saltpans due to the combined effect of wind and sunlight. Nowadays, there is a growing interest for protection and re-valorisation of saltpans intrinsically associated to the quality of sea salt that can be evaluated by its physico-chemical properties. These man-made systems can be located in different geographical areas presenting different environmental surroundings. During the crystallization process, organic compounds coming from these surroundings can be incorporated into sea salt crystals, influencing their final composition. The organic matter associated to sea salt arises from three main sources: algae, surrounding bacterial community, and anthropogenic activity. Based on the hypothesis that sea salt contains associated organic compounds that can be used as markers of the product, including saltpans surrounding environment, the aim of this PhD thesis was to identify these compounds. With this purpose, this work comprised: 1) a deep characterisation of the volatile composition of sea salt by headspace solid phase microextraction combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GCGC–ToFMS) methodology, in search of potential sea salt volatile markers; 2) the development of a methodology to isolate the polymeric material potentially present in sea salt, in amounts that allow its characterisation in terms of polysaccharides and protein; and 3) to explore the possible presence of triacylglycerides. The high chromatographic resolution and sensitivity of GC×GC–ToFMS enabled the separation and identification of a higher number of volatile compounds from sea salt, about three folds, compared to unidimentional chromatography (GC–qMS). The chromatographic contour plots obtained revealed the complexity of marine salt volatile composition and confirmed the relevance of GC×GC–ToFMS for this type of analysis. The structured bidimentional chromatographic profile arising from 1D volatility and 2D polarity was demonstrated, allowing more reliable identifications. Results obtained for analysis of salt from two locations in Aveiro and harvested over three years suggest the loss of volatile compounds along the time of storage of the salt. From Atlantic Ocean salts of seven different geographical origins, all produced in 2007, it was possible to identify a sub-set of ten compounds present in all salts, namely 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone, isophorone, ketoisophorone, β-ionone-5,6-epoxide, dihydroactinidiolide, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, 3-hydroxy-2,4,4-trimethylpentyl 2-methylpropanoate, 2,4,4-trimethylpentane-1,3-diyl bis(2-methylpropanoate), and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol. These ten compounds were considered potential volatile markers of sea salt. Seven of these compounds are carotenoid-derived compounds, and the other three may result from the integration of compounds from anthropogenic activity as metabolites of marine organisms. The present PhD work also allowed the isolation and characterisation, for the first time, of polymeric material from sea salt, using 16 Atlantic Ocean salts. A dialysis-based methodology was developed to isolate the polymeric material from sea salt in amounts that allowed its characterisation. The median content of polymeric material isolated from the 16 salts was 144 mg per kg of salt, e.g. 0.014% (w/w). Mid-infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetry revealed the main occurrence of sulfated polysaccharides, as well as the presence of protein in the polymeric material from sea salt. Sea salt polysaccharides were found to be rich in uronic acid residues (21 mol%), glucose (18), galactose (16), and fucose (13). Sulfate content represented a median of 45 mol%, being the median content of sulfated polysaccharides 461 mg/g of polymeric material, which accounted for 66 mg/kg of dry salt. Glycosidic linkage composition indicates that the main sugar residues that could carry one or more sulfate groups were identified as fucose and galactose. This fact allowed to infer that the polysaccharides from sea salt arise mainly from algae, due to their abundance and composition. The amino acid profile of the polymeric material from the 16 Atlantic Ocean salts showed as main residues, as medians, alanine (25 mol%), leucine (14), and valine (14), which are hydrophobic, being the median protein content 35 mg/g, i.e. 4,9 mg per kg of dry salt. Beside the occurrence of hydrophobic volatile compounds in sea salt, hydrophobic non-volatile compounds were also detected. Triacylglycerides were obtained from sea salt by soxhlet extraction with n-hexane. Fatty acid composition revealed palmitic acid as the major residue (43 mol%), followed by stearic (13), linolenic (13), oleic (12), and linoleic (9). Sea salt triacylglycerides median content was 1.5 mg per kg of dry salt. Both protein and triacylglycerides seem to arise from macro and microalgae, phytoplankton and cyanobacteria, due to their abundance and composition. Despite the variability resulting from saltpans surrounding environment, this PhD thesis allowed the identification of a sea salt characteristic organic compounds profile based on volatile compounds, polysaccharides, protein, and triacylglycerides.

Amidos crioulos: caracterização fundamental e influência de biopolímeros nas propriedades funcionais do amido

O trabalho apresentado nesta tese focou-se no estudo do amido, nomeadamente na avaliação das características físico-químicas, morfológicas, térmicas e reológicas do amido de seis variedades de milho crioulo, preservadas no estado de Santa Catarina (Brasil), com o intuito de contribuir para a valorização e preservação de variedades locais que são cultivadas em sistemas de produção orgânica, também conhecidas como variedades crioulas. Estas sementes são importantes quer para a preservação da biodiversidade quer para os pequenos produtores que as conservam e as produzem fazendo uso de uma agricultura sustentável e independente comercialmente. Para além da caracterização dos amidos crioulos foram também analisadas as alterações que ocorrem nos processos de gelatinização e retrogradação do amido quando realizados na presença de outros biopolímeros, nomeadamente a quitosana e galactomananas. No Capítulo I é apresentada uma breve revisão do conhecimento científico sobre o amido e sobre a quitosana e galactomananas, os outros biopolímeros utilizados. Igualmente é feita uma sucinta abordagem sobre as principais técnicas analíticas que foram utilizadas: reologia fundamental, calorimetria diferencial de varrimento, microscopia eletrónica de varrimento e espectroscopia de infravermelho médio. No capítulo II apresenta-se o isolamento dos amidos das seis variedades de milho crioulo e a sua caracterização junto com um amido comercial usado como modelo de comparação. Os amidos apresentaram genericamente características físicoquímicas semelhantes e o amido extraído das variedades crioulas MT e MPA 01 apresentaram menor temperatura de gelatinização e maior percentagem de retrogradação, respetivamente. Os efeitos da adição da quitosana e de três galactomananas (goma guar, goma de alfarroba e goma cassia) em sistemas mistos com o amido são analisados nos Capítulos III e IV respetivamente. A adição dos biopolímeros aos amidos resultou no aumento das temperaturas de gelatinização, na alteração da retrogradação do amido pelas galactomananas e na alteração das propriedades viscoeláticas dos géis formados. Os dados de infravermelho esclareceram que nos sistemas com quitosana, o amido formou complexos com o ácido acético usado para dissolver a quitosana e que esta por sua vez formou acetato de quitosana. O comportamento durante a gelatinização do amido comercial quando comparado com o amido do milho crioulo MPA na sua interação com as galactomananas é diferenciado.

Metabonomic studies to assess beer quality and stability

The work reported in this thesis aimed at applying the methodology known as metabonomics to the detailed study of a particular type of beer and its quality control, with basis on the use of multivariate analysis (MVA) to extract meaningful information from given analytical data sets. In Chapter 1, a detailed description of beer is given considering the brewing process, main characteristics and typical composition of beer, beer stability and the commonly used analytical techniques for beer analysis. The fundamentals of the analytical methods employed here, namely nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy, together with the description of the metabonomics methodology are described shortly in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3, the application of high resolution NMR to characterize the chemical composition of a lager beer is described. The 1H NMR spectrum obtained by direct analysis of beer show a high degree of complexity, confirming the great potential of NMR spectroscopy for the detection of a wide variety of families of compounds, in a single run. Spectral assignment was carried out by 2D NMR, resulting in the identification of about 40 compounds, including alcohols, amino acids, organic acids, nucleosides and sugars. In a second part of Chapter 3, the compositional variability of beer was assessed. For that purpose, metabonomics was applied to 1H NMR data (NMR/MVA) to evaluate beer variability between beers from the same brand (lager), produced nationally but differing in brewing site and date of production. Differences between brewing sites and/or dates were observed, reflecting compositional differences related to particular processing steps, including mashing, fermentation and maturation. Chapter 4 describes the quantification of organic acids in beer by NMR, using different quantitative methods: direct integration of NMR signals (vs. internal reference or vs. an external electronic reference, ERETIC method) and by quantitative statistical methods (using the partial least squares (PLS) regression) were developed and compared. PLS1 regression models were built using different quantitative methods as reference: capillary electrophoresis with direct and indirect detection and enzymatic essays. It was found that NMR integration results generally agree with those obtained by the best performance PLS models, although some overestimation for malic and pyruvic acids and an apparent underestimation for citric acid were observed. Finally, Chapter 5 describes metabonomic studies performed to better understand the forced aging (18 days, at 45 ºC) beer process. The aging process of lager beer was followed by i) NMR, ii) GC-MS, and iii) MIR spectroscopy. MVA methods of each analytical data set revealed clear separation between different aging days for both NMR and GC-MS data, enabling the identification of compounds closely related with the aging process: 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), organic acids, γ-amino butyric acid (GABA), proline and the ratio linear/branched dextrins (NMR domain) and 5-HMF, furfural, diethyl succinate and phenylacetaldehyde (known aging markers) and, for the first time, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4(H)-pyran-4-one xii (DDMP) and maltoxazine (by GC-MS domain). For MIR/MVA, no aging trend could be measured, the results reflecting the need of further experimental optimizations. Data correlation between NMR and GC-MS data was performed by outer product analysis (OPA) and statistical heterospectroscopy (SHY) methodologies, enabling the identification of further compounds (11 compounds, 5 of each are still unassigned) highly related with the aging process. Data correlation between sensory characteristics and NMR and GC-MS was also assessed through PLS1 regression models using the sensory response as reference. The results obtained showed good relationships between analytical data response and sensory response, particularly for the aromatic region of the NMR spectra and for GC-MS data (r > 0.89). However, the prediction power of all built PLS1 regression models was relatively low, possibly reflecting the low number of samples/tasters employed, an aspect to improve in future studies.