Piezoresponse force microscopy investigations of Aurivillius phase thin films

The sol-gel synthesis and characterization of n≥3n≥3 Aurivillius phase thin filmsdeposited on Pt/Ti/SiO2–SiPt/Ti/SiO2–Si substrates is described. The number of perovskite layers, nn, was increased by inserting BiFeO3BiFeO3 into three layered Aurivillius phase Bi4Ti3O12Bi4Ti3O12 to form compounds such as Bi5FeTi3O15Bi5FeTi3O15 (n=4)(n=4). 30% of the Fe3+Fe3+ ions in Bi5FeTi3O15Bi5FeTi3O15 were substituted with Mn3+Mn3+ ions to form the structureBi5Ti3Fe0.7Mn0.3O15Bi5Ti3Fe0.7Mn0.3O15. The electromechanical responses of the materials were investigated using piezoresponse force microscopy and the results are discussed in relation to the crystallinity of the films as measured by x-ray diffraction.

Magnetic field-induced ferroelectric switching in multiferroic aurivillius phase thin films at room temperature

Single-phase multiferroic materials are of considerable interest for future memory and sensing applications. Thin films of Aurivillius phase Bi 7Ti3Fe3O21 and Bi6Ti 2.8Fe1.52Mn0.68O18 (possessing six and five perovskite units per half-cell, respectively) have been prepared by chemical solution deposition on c-plane sapphire. Superconducting quantum interference device magnetometry reveal Bi7Ti3Fe 3O21 to be antiferromagnetic (TN = 190 K) and weakly ferromagnetic below 35 K, however, Bi6Ti2.8Fe 1.52Mn0.68O18 gives a distinct room-temperature in-plane ferromagnetic signature (Ms = 0.74 emu/g, μ0Hc =7 mT). Microstructural analysis, coupled with the use of a statistical analysis of the data, allows us to conclude that ferromagnetism does not originate from second phase inclusions, with a confidence level of 99.5%. Piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) demonstrates room-temperature ferroelectricity in both films, whereas PFM observations on Bi6Ti2.8Fe1.52Mn0.68O18 show Aurivillius grains undergo ferroelectric domain polarization switching induced by an applied magnetic field. Here, we show for the first time that Bi6Ti2.8Fe1.52Mn0.68O18 thin films are both ferroelectric and ferromagnetic and, demonstrate magnetic field-induced switching of ferroelectric polarization in individual Aurivillius phase grains at room temperature.

Direct visualization of magnetic-field-induced magnetoelectric switching in multiferroic Aurivillius phase thin films

Multiferroic materials displaying coupled ferroelectric and ferromagnetic order parameters could provide a means for data storage whereby bits could be written electrically and read magnetically, or vice versa. Thin films of Aurivillius phase Bi6Ti2.8Fe1.52Mn0.68O18, previously prepared by a chemical solution deposition (CSD) technique, are multiferroics demonstrating magnetoelectric coupling at room temperature. Here, we demonstrate the growth of a similar composition, Bi6Ti2.99Fe1.46Mn0.55O18, via the liquid injection chemical vapor deposition technique. High-resolution magnetic measurements reveal a considerably higher in-plane ferromagnetic signature than CSD grown films (MS = 24.25 emu/g (215 emu/cm3), MR = 9.916 emu/g (81.5 emu/cm3), HC = 170 Oe). A statistical analysis of the results from a thorough microstructural examination of the samples, allows us to conclude that the ferromagnetic signature can be attributed to the Aurivillius phase, with a confidence level of 99.95%. In addition, we report the direct piezoresponse force microscopy visualization of ferroelectric switching while going through a full in-plane magnetic field cycle, where increased volumes (8.6 to 14% compared with 4 to 7% for the CSD-grown films) of the film engage in magnetoelectric coupling and demonstrate both irreversible and reversible magnetoelectric domain switching.

Room temperature electromechanical and magnetic investigations of ferroelectric Aurivillius phase Bi5Ti3(FexMn1−x)O15 (x = 1 and 0.7) chemical solution deposited thin films

Aurivillius phase thin films of Bi5Ti3(FexMn1−x)O15 with x = 1 (Bi5Ti3FeO15) and 0.7 (Bi5Ti3Fe0.7Mn0.3O15) on SiO2-Si(100) and Pt/Ti/SiO2-Si substrates were fabricated by chemical solution deposition. The method was optimized in order to suppress formation of pyrochlore phase Bi2Ti2O7 and improve crystallinity. The structuralproperties of the films were examined by x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. Optimum crystallinity and pyrochlore phase suppression was achieved by the addition of 15 to 25 mol. % excess bismuth to the sols. Based on this study, 17.5 mol. % excess bismuth was used in the preparation of Bi2Ti2O7-free films of Bi5Ti3FeO15 on SrTiO3(100) and NdGaO3(001) substrates, confirming the suppression of pyrochlore phase using this excess of bismuth. Thirty percent of the Fe3+ ions in Bi5Ti3FeO15 was substituted with Mn3+ ions to form Bi2Ti2O7-free thin films of Bi5Ti3Fe0.7Mn0.3O15 on Pt/Ti/SiO2-Si, SiO2-Si(100), SrTiO3(100), and NdGaO3(001) substrates. Bi5Ti3FeO15 and Bi5Ti3Fe0.7Mn0.3O15thin films on Pt/Ti/SiO2-Si and SiO2-Si(100) substrates were achieved with a higher degree of a-axis orientation compared with the films on SrTiO3(100) and NdGaO3(001) substrates. Room temperature electromechanical and magnetic properties of the thin films were investigated in order to assess the potential of these materials for piezoelectric,ferroelectric, and multiferroic applications. Vertical piezoresponse force microscopy measurements of the films demonstrate that Bi5Ti3FeO15 and Bi5Ti3Fe0.7Mn0.3O15thin films are piezoelectric at room temperature. Room temperature switching spectroscopy-piezoresponse force microscopy measurements in the presence and absence of an applied bias demonstrate local ferroelectric switching behaviour (180°) in the films. Superconducting quantum interference device magnetometry measurements do not show any room temperature ferromagnetic hysteresis down to an upper detection limit of 2.53 × 10−3 emu; and it is concluded, therefore, that such films are not mutiferroic at room temperature. Piezoresponse force microscopy lithography images of Bi5Ti3Fe0.7Mn0.3O15thin films are presented.

Chemical vapour deposition of complex ferroic oxide thin films

Herein is presented a novel chemical vapour deposition (CVD) route for the fabrication of oxide ferroelectrics. A versatile layer-by-layer growth mode was developed to prepare naturally super-latticed bismuth based materials belonging to the Aurivillius phase family, with which good control over composition and crystal structure was achieved. In chapter 3, the effect of epitaxial strain on one of the very simple oxide materials TiO2 was studied. It has been found that the ultra-thin TiO2 films demonstrate ferroelectric behaviour when grown on NdGaO3 substrates. TiO2 exists in various crystal phases, but none of them show ferroelectric behaviour. The epitaxial strain due to the substrate, changes the crystal structure from tetragonal to orthorhombic which in turn leads to ferroelectric behaviour. In chapter 4, a unique growth method for multiferroic BiFeO3 (BFO) thin films is shown, where a phase pure BFO thin films can be prepared even in the presence of excess bismuth precursor during the growth process. This type of growth is usually called adsorption controlled growth and can be used for growing various bismuth containing compounds, where the volatility of bismuth can create various types of defects. Chapter 5 describes the growth of Bi4Ti3O12 thin films in a layer-by-layer growth mode. In this section, the effect of Bi and Ti precursor flows on the growth of thin films is discussed and it is shown that how change in precursor flows leads to out-ofphase boundary defects during the layer-by-layer growth mode. In chapter 6, the growth of a compound Bi5Ti3FeO15, which is a 1:1 mixture of BiFeO3 and Bi4Ti3O12, is presented. The growth mechanism of Bi5Ti3FeO15 thin films is presented, where the Fe precursor flow was controlled from zero to the insertion of one full BiFeO3 perovskite unit cell into the Bi4Ti3O12 structure in addition, the effect of iron precursor flow on crystalline properties is demonstrated. The methods presented in this thesis can be adopted to grow ferroelectric and multiferroic films for industrial applications.

The structural and piezoresponse properties of c-axis-oriented Aurivillius phase Bi5Ti3FeO15 thin films deposited by atomic vapor deposition

The deposition by atomic vapor deposition of highly c-axis-oriented Aurivillius phase Bi 5Ti 3FeO 15 (BTFO) thin films on (100) Si substrates is reported. Partially crystallized BTFO films with c-axis perpendicular to the substrate surface were first deposited at 610°C (8 excess Bi), and subsequently annealed at 820°C to get stoichiometric composition. After annealing, the films were highly c-axis-oriented, showing only (00l) peaks in x-ray diffraction (XRD), up to (0024). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirms the BTFO film has a clear layered structure, and the bismuth oxide layer interleaves the four-block pseudoperovskite layer, indicating the n 4 Aurivillius phase structure. Piezoresponse force microscopy measurements indicate strong in-plane piezoelectric response, consistent with the c-axis layered structure, shown by XRD and TEM.

Room temperature ferroelectric and magnetic investigations and detailed phase analysis of Aurivillius phase Bi 5Ti 3Fe 0.7Co 0.3O 15 thin films

Aurivillius phase Bi 5Ti 3Fe 0.7Co 0.3O 15 (BTF7C3O) thin films on α-quartz substrates were fabricated by a chemical solution deposition method and the room temperature ferroelectric and magnetic properties of this candidate multiferroic were compared with those of thin films of Mn 3 substituted, Bi 5Ti 3Fe 0.7Mn 0.3O 15 (BTF7M3O). Vertical and lateral piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) measurements of the films conclusively demonstrate that BTF7C3O and BTF7M3O thin films are piezoelectric and ferroelectric at room temperature, with the major polarization vector in the lateral plane of the films. No net magnetization was observed for the in-plane superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometry measurements of BTF7M3O thin films. In contrast, SQUID measurements of the BTF7C3O films clearly demonstrated ferromagnetic behavior, with a remanent magnetization, B r, of 6.37 emu/cm 3 (or 804 memu/g), remanent moment 4.99 × 10 -5 emu. The BTF7C3O films were scrutinized by x-ray diffraction, high resolution transmission electron microscopy, scanning transmission electron microscopy, and energy dispersive x-ray analysis mapping to assess the prospect of the observed multiferroic properties being intrinsic to the main phase. The results of extensive micro-structural phase analysis demonstrated that the BTF7C3O films comprised of a 3.95 Fe/Co-rich spinel phase, likely CoFe 2 - xTi xO 4, which would account for the observed magnetic moment in the films. Additionally, x-ray magnetic circular dichroism photoemission electron microscopy (XMCD-PEEM) imaging confirmed that the majority of magnetic response arises from the Fe sites of Fe/Co-rich spinel phase inclusions. While the magnetic contribution from the main phase could not be determined by the XMCD-PEEM images, these data however imply that the Bi 5Ti 3Fe 0.7Co 0.3O 15 thin films are likely not single phase multiferroics at room temperature. The PFM results presented demonstrate that the naturally 2D nanostructured Bi 5Ti 3Fe 0.7Co 0.3O 15 phase is a novel ferroelectric and has potential commercial applications in high temperature piezoelectric and ferroelectric memory technologies. The implications for the conclusive demonstration of ferroelectric and ferromagnetic properties in single-phase materials of this type are discussed.

Computational study of the growth of copper thin films by atomic layer deposition

Copper is the main interconnect material in microelectronic devices, and a 2 nm-thick continuous Cu film seed layer needs to be deposited to produce microelectronic devices with the smallest features and more functionality. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is the most suitable method to deposit such thin films. However, the reaction mechanism and the surface chemistry of copper ALD remain unclear, which is deterring the development of better precursors and design of new ALD processes. In this thesis, we study the surface chemistries during ALD of copper by means of density functional theory (DFT). To understand the effect of temperature and pressure on the composition of copper with substrates, we used ab initio atomistic thermodynamics to obtain phase diagram of the Cu(111)/SiO2(0001) interface. We found that the interfacial oxide Cu2O phases prefer high oxygen pressure and low temperature while the silicide phases are stable at low oxygen pressure and high temperature for Cu/SiO2 interface, which is in good agreement with experimental observations. Understanding the precursor adsorption on surfaces is important for understanding the surface chemistry and reaction mechanism of the Cu ALD process. Focusing on two common Cu ALD precursors, Cu(dmap)2 and Cu(acac)2, we studied the precursor adsorption on Cu surfaces by means of van der Waals (vdW) inclusive DFT methods. We found that the adsorption energies and adsorption geometries are dependent on the adsorption sites and on the method used to include vdW in the DFT calculation. Both precursor molecules are partially decomposed and the Cu cations are partially reduced in their chemisorbed structure. It is found that clean cleavage of the ligand−metal bond is one of the requirements for selecting precursors for ALD of metals. 2 Bonding between surface and an atom in the ligand which is not coordinated with the Cu may result in impurities in the thin film. To have insight into the reaction mechanism of a full ALD cycle of Cu ALD, we proposed reaction pathways based on activation energies and reaction energies for a range of surface reactions between Cu(dmap)2 and Et2Zn. The butane formation and desorption steps are found to be extremely exothermic, explaining the ALD reaction scheme of original experimental work. Endothermic ligand diffusion and re-ordering steps may result in residual dmap ligands blocking surface sites at the end of the Et2Zn pulse, and in residual Zn being reduced and incorporated as an impurity. This may lead to very slow growth rate, as was the case in the experimental work. By investigating the reduction of CuO to metallic Cu, we elucidated the role of the reducing agent in indirect ALD of Cu. We found that CuO bulk is protected from reduction during vacuum annealing by the CuO surface and that H2 is required in order to reduce that surface, which shows that the strength of reducing agent is important to obtain fully reduced metal thin films during indirect ALD processes. Overall, in this thesis, we studied the surface chemistries and reaction mechanisms of Cu ALD processes and the nucleation of Cu to form a thin film.