Issues in Learning and Education for the Ageing

The population is ageing worldwide. This chapter is a discussion of issues in ageing, the importance of learning and education for the elderly, and then the more specific issues of why, how and what elders want to learn.

The role of goal importance in predicting university students’ high academic performance

We examined goal importance, focusing on high, but not exclusive priority goals, in the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to predict students’ academic performance. At the beginning of semester, students in a psychology subject (N = 197) completed TPB and goal importance items for achieving a high grade. Regression analyses revealed partial support for the TPB. Perceived behavioural control, but not attitude or subjective norm, significantly predicted intention, with intention predicting final grade. Goal importance significantly predicted intention, but not final grade, indicating that perceiving a performance goal as highly, but not necessarily exclusively, important impacts on students’ achievement intentions.

The influence of families on early adolescent school connectedness : evidence that this association varies with adolescent involvement in peer drinking networks

School connectedness is central to the long term well-being of adolescents, and high quality parent-child relationships facilitate school connectedness. This study examined the extent to which family relationship quality is associated with the school connectedness of pre- and early teenagers, and how this association varies with adolescent involvement in peer drinking networks. The sample consisted of 7,372 10-14 year olds recruited from 231 schools in 30 Australian communities. Participants completed the Communities that Care youth survey. A multi-level model of school connectedness was used, with a random term for school-level variation. Key independent variables included family relationship quality, peer drinking networks, and school grade. Control variables included child gender, sensation seeking, depression, child alcohol use, parent education, and language spoken at home. For grade 6 students, the association of family relationship quality and school connectedness was lower when peer drinking networks were present, and this effect was nonsignificant for older (grade 8) students. Post hoc analyses indicated that the effect for family relationship quality on school connectedness was nonsignificant when adolescents in grade 6 reported that the majority of friends consumed alcohol. The results point to the importance of familyschool partnerships in early intervention and prevention.

Observing the mother-infant feeding interaction

Early parenting is critical to effective attachment and a range of positive developmental outcomes for children. Feeding is a key task of early parenting and increasing evidence indicates that early feeding practices are important for the development of self-regulation of intake and food preferences which in turn are predictors of later obesity risk. However, relatively little is known about the mother-infant interaction at the transition to solids among typically developing children. This study aimed to describe parenting strategies used by mothers at the transition from milk feeding to solid food. Twenty mother-infant dyads were video-taped during a feeding interaction and data was analysed to describe maternal use of parenting strategies. It was predicted that positive feeding strategies would be correlated with lower levels of Infant Food Refusal (IFR), higher maternal sensitivity, and better overall parenting scores. The opposite was predicted for negative feeding strategies. It was found that positive strategy use and general parenting scores were significantly correlated in the predicted direction, however maternal instruction, aversive contact and ineffective strategy use were significantly correlated with and predictive of IFR. Additionally, it was hypothesised that maternal strategy use would deteriorate towards the end of the interaction, and this hypothesis was partially supported: significantly more negative strategy use was observed in the last third of the interaction, whilst positive strategy use remained consistent through the feeding interaction. The findings have important implications for early feeding parent education and intervention programs.

Investigating the mediating effects of emotional intelligence and coping on problem behaviours in adolescents

This study explored the mediating effect of emotional intelligence (EI) and coping strategies on problem behaviours in Australian adolescents. One hundred and forty-five adolescents (60 boys and 85 girls with a mean age of 12.02 years) completed self-report instruments of EI, stress coping strategies, and problem behaviours. The relationships between Emotional Management and Control and engagement in internalising and externalising behaviours were found to be mediated by the use of non-productive coping strategies. Mediation models of the relationship between problem behaviours and the Understanding Emotions and Emotional Recognition and Expression dimensions were found to be only partially mediated by the engagement in problem-focused and non-productive coping strategies. The results are discussed in regards to how coping strategies utilised in adolescence may produce more or less adaptive patterns of coping during adulthood. The development of emotional abilities may be required to improve coping outcomes for adolescents, which in turn may produce better psychological outcomes for adolescents in the long term.

Facial identity and facial expression matching in 5 - 12-year-old children and adults

Facial identity and facial expression matching tasks were completed by 5–12-year-old children and adults using stimuli extracted from the same set of normalized faces. Configural and feature processing were examined using speed and accuracy of responding and facial feature selection, respectively. Facial identity matching was slower than face expression matching for all age groups. Large age effects were found on both speed and accuracy of responding and feature use in both identity and expression matching tasks. Eye region preference was found on the facial identity task and mouth region preference on the facial expression task. Use of mouth region information for facial expression matching increased with age, whereas use of eye region information for facial identity matching peaked early. The feature use information suggests that the specific use of primary facial features to arrive at identity and emotion matching judgments matures across middle childhood.

Exploring parents' beliefs about their young child's physical activity and screen time behaviours

Drawing on the belief-based framework of the theory of planned behaviour, 20 adults living in Queensland, Australia participated in semi-structured interviews to elicit salient beliefs regarding their young child’s physical activity (PA) and screen time behaviours. Data were analysed separately for PA and screen time with a range of beliefs emerging that guided parents’ decisions for these important health behaviours. Underlying advantages (e.g., improve family interactions, improve child behaviour), disadvantages (e.g., mess and noise factor, increase in parental distress), barriers (e.g., lack of time, parental fatigue), and facilitators (e.g., access to parks, social support) to engaging their child in adequate PA and limited screen time emerged. Normative pressures were also identified as affecting parents’ decisions for their child in these contexts. Parents experience unique difficulties in engaging their child in adequate PA and limited screen time that interventions can draw on when designing and implementing programs aimed at modifying these important child health behaviours.

“I would have lost the respect of my friends and family if they knew I had bent the road rules” : parents, peers, and the perilous behaviour of young drivers

Young novice drivers are at considerable risk of injury on the road. Their behaviour appears vulnerable to the social influence of their parents and friends. The nature and mechanisms of parent and peer influence on young novice driver (16–25 years) behaviour was explored via small group interviews (n = 21) and two surveys (n1 = 1170, n2 = 390) to inform more effective young driver countermeasures. Parental and peer influence occurred in preLicence, Learner, and Provisional (intermediate) periods. Pre-Licence and unsupervised Learner drivers reported their parents were less likely to punish risky driving (e.g., speeding). These drivers were more likely to imitate their parents and reported their parents were also risky drivers. Young novice drivers who experienced or expected social punishments from peers, including ‘being told off’ for risky driving, reported less riskiness. Conversely drivers who experienced or expected social rewards such as being ‘cheered on’ by friends – who were also more risky drivers – reported more risky driving including crashes and offences. Interventions enhancing positive influence and curtailing negative influence may improve road safety outcomes not only for young novice drivers, but for all persons who share the road with them. Parent-specific interventions warrant further development and evaluation including: modelling safe driving behaviour by parents; active monitoring of driving during novice licensure; and sharing the family vehicle during the intermediate phase. Peer-targeted interventions including modelling of safe driving behaviour and attitudes; minimisation of social reinforcement and promotion of social sanctions for risky driving also need further development and evaluation.

The validity of personal disturbance scale (DSSI/sAD) in people with diabetes mellitus, using longitudinal data

Despite being used since 1976, Delusions-Symptoms-States-Inventory/states of Anxiety and Depression (DSSI/sAD) has not yet been validated for use among people with diabetes. The aim of this study was to examine the validity of the personal disturbance scale (DSSI/sAD) among women with diabetes using Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy (MUSP) cohort data. The DSSI subscales were compared against DSM-IV disorders, the Mental Component Score of the Short Form 36 (SF-36 MCS), and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Factor analyses, odds ratios, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses and diagnostic efficiency tests were used to report findings. Exploratory factor analysis and fit indices confirmed the hypothesized two-factor model of DSSI/sAD. We found significant variations in the DSSI/sAD domain scores that could be explained by CES-D (DSSI-Anxiety: 55%, DSSI-Depression: 46%) and SF-36 MCS (DSSI-Anxiety: 66%, DSSI-Depression: 56%). The DSSI subscales predicted DSM-IV diagnosed depression and anxiety disorders. The ROC analyses show that although the DSSI symptoms and DSM-IV disorders were measured concurrently the estimates of concordance remained only moderate. The findings demonstrate that the DSSI/sAD items have similar relationships to one another in both the diabetes and non-diabetes data sets which therefore suggest that they have similar interpretations.

Self-regulation support through music

A critical dimension of early learning competence in the year prior to school is self-regulation. Self-regulation enables children to manage their emotions and direct their attention, thinking, and actions to meet adaptive goals. These skills enhance young children's readiness to learn.

Variable phenotype in 16p duplication within a family

Background More individuals are now being identified with very rare genetic syndromes. We present a family with an inherited duplication of 16p11.2 to 16q12.1 in ring formation. Three of the four children, (aged 15 months to 10 years), mother, uncle, and grandmother are affected. Our aim was to provide preliminary evidence of possible phenotypic patterns of learning and behaviour associated with this chromosome anomaly. Method Psychometric assessments were undertaken with all four children. The mother and uncle also agreed to participate in the study. Measures of development (Bayley or Mullen), intellectual ability (WISC-IV or WAIS-III), academic achievement (WIAT-II), adaptive behaviour (Vinelands), and other relevant aspects of functioning (e.g., Children’s Memory Scale) were administered. Results. The first-born child is the only one who is unaffected. Her intellectual ability was assessed as being within the superior range. The second child experienced early difficulties with speech and motor skills. Although his intelligence is average, he has learning difficulties and significant auditory memory problems. The third child’s speech and motor milestones were markedly delayed. He has a complex medical history that includes a vitamin B12 deficiency. On the Mullen Scales at age 4 his scores ranged from average to very low. The development of the youngest child (aged 15 months), who also had a B12 deficiency but was treated early, was assessed as being within typical limits. Conclusions There is considerable developmental variability among the three children with this inherited 16p duplication. We discuss the intriguing similarities and differences, considering common features that may reflect phenotypic patterns and speculating about possible explanations for the variable presentations.

The sleeping elephant in the room: Practices and policies regarding sleep-rest time in ECEC

The National Quality Framework (NQF) for Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) in Australia identifies the need for services to make provision for each child’s sleep, rest and relaxation within a national early year’s policy framework that also requires that opportunities for learning and physical health are optimised, and that the agency of each child and their family is respected. Against this background, the scheduling of a standard sleep-time in ECEC centres remains a common practice, even in rooms catering for older children for whom daytime sleep may no longer be necessary. This article draws upon existing scholarship to explore the issues and tensions associated with sleep-rest, in the context of Australian curriculum and quality standards documents. We review accounts from educators, parents and children and contemporary views regarding high quality practice in ECEC, with an aim of supporting critical reflection on practice and continuous quality improvement in ECEC.

Mandatory naptimes in child care and children's nighttime sleep

Objectives To examine the relationship between mandatory naptimes in child care and children's nighttime sleep duration, both concurrently and 12 months later once in school. Methods A sample of 168 children (50-72 months; 55% males) attending licensed child care centers were observed across their morning and throughout their scheduled naptime. Mandatory naptime was determined as the period in which children were not permitted any alternative activity except lying on their bed. Teachers reported each child's napping in child care. Nighttime and total sleep duration was reported by parents at 2 time points, in child care and in the second semester of their first school year. General linear models were used to examine group differences in sleep duration between children experiencing 0 to 60 minutes and >60 minutes of mandatory naptime, adjusting for key confounders. Path analysis was conducted to test a mediation model in which mandatory naptime is associated with nighttime sleep duration through increased napping in child care. Results Children who experienced >60 minutes of mandatory naptime in child care had significantly less nighttime sleep than those with 0 to 60 minutes of mandatory naptime. This difference persisted at 12-month follow-up, once children were in school. Napping in child care mediated the relationship between mandatory naptime and duration of nighttime sleep. Conclusions Exposure to mandatory naptimes of >60 minutes in child care is associated with decreased duration of nighttime sleep that endures beyond child care attendance. Given the large number of children who attend child care, sleep practices within these settings present an important focus for child health.

The psychosocial purpose of driving and its relationship with the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers

Background The overrepresentation of young drivers in road crashes, injuries and fatalities around the world has resulted in a breadth of injury prevention efforts including education, enforcement, engineering, and exposure control. Despite multifaceted intervention, the young driver problem remains a challenge for injury prevention researchers, practitioners and policy-makers. The intractable nature of young driver crash risks suggests that a deeper understanding of their car use – that is, the purpose of their driving – is required to inform the design of more effective young driver countermeasures. Aims This research examined the driving purpose reported by young drivers, including the relationship with self-reported risky driving behaviours including offences. Methods Young drivers with a Learner or Provisional licence participated in three online surveys (N1 = 656, 17–20 years; N2 = 1051, 17–20 years; N3 = 351, 17–21 years) as part of a larger state-wide project in Queensland, Australia. Results A driving purpose scale was developed (the PsychoSocial Purpose Driving Scale, PSPDS), revealing that young drivers drove for psychosocial reasons such as for a sense of freedom and to feel independent. Drivers who reported the greatest psychosocial purpose for driving were more likely to be male and to report more risky driving behaviours such as speeding. Drivers who deliberately avoided on-road police presence and reported a prior driving-related offence had significantly greater PSPDS scores, and higher reporting of psychosocial driving purposes was found over time as drivers transitioned from the supervised Learner licence phase to the independent Provisional (intermediate) licence phase. Discussion and conclusions The psychosocial needs met by driving suggest that effective intervention to prevent young driver injury requires further consideration of their driving purpose. Enforcement, education, and engineering efforts which consider the psychosocial purpose of the driving are likely to be more efficacious than those which presently do not. Road safety countermeasures could reduce the young driver’s exposure to risk through such mechanisms as encouraging the use of public transport.

University students' intentions to report cyberbullying

Little is known about the prevalence of cyberbullying among university students and less about whether they utilise anti-bullying policies. However, failure to report cyberbullying incidents to authorities would lessen the efficacy of these policies. This study investigated the prevalence of cyberbullying among university students and their reporting intentions for cyberbullying incidents. Two hundred and eighty- two students completed a survey on their intentions to report cyberbullying. Results found cyberbullying exists among university students and they would report to authorities if the policy outlined specific information. Students who had been cyber victimised were more likely to report than those students who had not been cyberbullied. Implications for universities are discussed.