The structure of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) stems in relation to wood properties of sawn timber

An important challenge in forest industry is to get the appropriate raw material out from the forests to the wood processing industry. Growth and stem reconstruction simulators are therefore increasingly integrated in industrial conversion simulators, for linking the properties of wooden products to the three-dimensional structure of stems and their growing conditions. Static simulators predict the wood properties from stem dimensions at the end of a growth simulation period, whereas in dynamic approaches, the structural components, e.g. branches, are incremented along with the growth processes. The dynamic approach can be applied to stem reconstruction by predicting the three-dimensional stem structure from external tree variables (i.e. age, height) as a result of growth to the current state. In this study, a dynamic growth simulator, PipeQual, and a stem reconstruction simulator, RetroSTEM, are adapted to Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) to predict the three-dimensional structure of stems (tapers, branchiness, wood basic density) over time such that both simulators can be integrated in a sawing simulator. The parameterisation of the PipeQual and RetroSTEM simulators for Norway spruce relied on the theoretically based description of tree structure developing in the growth process and following certain conservative structural regularities while allowing for plasticity in the crown development. The crown expressed both regularity and plasticity in its development, as the vertical foliage density peaked regularly at about 5 m from the stem apex, varying below that with tree age and dominance position (Study I). Conservative stem structure was characterized in terms of (1) the pipe ratios between foliage mass and branch and stem cross-sectional areas at crown base, (2) the allometric relationship between foliage mass and crown length, (3) mean branch length relative to crown length and (4) form coefficients in branches and stem (Study II). The pipe ratio between branch and stem cross-sectional area at crown base, and mean branch length relative to the crown length may differ in trees before and after canopy closure, but the variation should be further analysed in stands of different ages and densities with varying site fertilities and climates. The predictions of the PipeQual and RetroSTEM simulators were evaluated by comparing the simulated values to measured ones (Study III, IV). Both simulators predicted stem taper and branch diameter at the individual tree level with a small bias. RetroSTEM predictions of wood density were accurate. For focusing on even more accurate predictions of stem diameters and branchiness along the stem, both simulators should be further improved by revising the following aspects in the simulators: the relationship between foliage and stem sapwood area in the upper stem, the error source in branch sizes, the crown base development and the height growth models in RetroSTEM. In Study V, the RetroSTEM simulator was integrated in the InnoSIM sawing simulator, and according to the pilot simulations, this turned out to be an efficient tool for readily producing stand scale information about stem sizes and structure when approximating the available assortments of wood products.

Variation in tracheid cross-sectional dimensions and wood viscoelasticity extent and control methods

Printing papers have been the main product of the Finnish paper industry. To improve properties and economy of printing papers, controlling of tracheid cross-sectional dimensions and wood viscoelasticity are examined in this study. Controlling is understood as any procedure which yields raw material classes with distinct properties and small internal variation. Tracheid cross-sectional dimensions, i.e., cell wall thickness and radial and tangential diameters can be controlled with methods such as sorting wood into pulpwood and sawmill chips, sorting of logs according to tree social status and fractionation of fibres. These control methods were analysed in this study with simulations, which were based on measured tracheid cross-sectional dimensions. A SilviScan device was used to measure the data set from five Norway spruce (Picea abies) and five Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) trunks. The simulation results indicate that the sawmill chips and top pulpwood assortments have quite similar cross-sectional dimensions. Norway spruce and Scots pine are on average also relatively similar in their cross-sectional dimensions. The distributions of these species are somewhat different, but from a practical point of view, the differences are probably of minor importance. The controlling of tracheid cross-sectional dimensions can be done most efficiently with methods that can separate fibres into earlywood and latewood. Sorting of logs or partitioning of logs into juvenile and mature wood were markedly less efficient control methods than fractionation of fibres. Wood viscoelasticity affects energy consumption in mechanical pulping, and is thus an interesting control target when improving energy efficiency of the process. A literature study was made to evaluate the possibility of using viscoelasticity in controlling. The study indicates that there is considerable variation in viscoelastic properties within tree species, but unfortunately, the viscoelastic properties of important raw material lots such as top pulpwood or sawmill chips are not known. Viscoelastic properties of wood depend mainly on lignin, but also on microfibrillar angle, width of cellulose crystals and tracheid cross-sectional dimensions.

A capability-based view of organisational renewal : Combining opportunity- and advantage-seeking growth in large, established European and North American wood-industry companies

The purpose of this study was to extend understanding of how large firms pursuing sustained and profitable growth manage organisational renewal. A multiple-case study was conducted in 27 North American and European wood-industry companies, of which 11 were chosen for closer study. The study combined the organisational-capabilities approach to strategic management with corporate-entrepreneurship thinking. It charted the further development of an identification and classification system for capabilities comprising three dimensions: (i) the dynamism between firm-specific and industry-significant capabilities, (ii) hierarchies of capabilities and capability portfolios, and (iii) their internal structure. Capability building was analysed in the context of the organisational design, the technological systems and the type of resource-bundling process (creating new vs. entrenching existing capabilities). The thesis describes the current capability portfolios and the organisational changes in the case companies. It also clarifies the mechanisms through which companies can influence the balance between knowledge search and the efficiency of knowledge transfer and integration in their daily business activities, and consequently the diversity of their capability portfolio and the breadth and novelty of their product/service range. The largest wood-industry companies of today must develop a seemingly dual strategic focus: they have to combine leading-edge, innovative solutions with cost-efficient, large-scale production. The use of modern technology in production was no longer a primary source of competitiveness in the case companies, but rather belonged to the portfolio of basic capabilities. Knowledge and information management had become an industry imperative, on a par with cost effectiveness. Yet, during the period of this research, the case companies were better in supporting growth in volume of the existing activity than growth through new economic activities. Customer-driven, incremental innovation was preferred over firm-driven innovation through experimentation. The three main constraints on organisational renewal were the lack of slack resources, the aim for lean, centralised designs, and the inward-bound communication climate.

The effects of thinning and fertilisation on wood and tracheid properties of Norway spruce (Picea abies) the results of long-term experiments

The aim of this thesis was to study the basic relationships between thinning and fertilisation, tree growth rate and wood properties of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) throughout a stand rotation. The material consisted of a total of 109 trees from both long-term thinning (Heinola, 61°10'N, 26°01'E; Punkaharju, 61°49'N, 29°19'E) and fertilisation-thinning experiments (Parikkala, 61°36'N, 29°22'E; Suonenjoki, 62°45'N, 27°00'E) in Finland. Wood properties, i.e., radial increment, wood density, latewood proportion, tracheid length, cell wall thickness and lumen diameter, as well as relative lignin content, were measured in detail from the pith to the bark, as well as from the stem base towards the stem apex. Intensive thinning and fertilisation treatments of Norway spruce stands increased (8% 64%) the radial increment of studied trees at breast height (1.3 m). At the same time, a faster growth rate slightly decreased average wood density (2% 7%), tracheid length (0% 9%) and cell wall thickness (1% 17%). The faster growth resulted in only small changes (0% 9%) in lumen diameter and relative lignin content (1% 2%; lignin content was 25.4% 26%). However, the random variation in wood properties was large both between and within trees and annual rings. The results of this thesis indicate that the prevailing thinning and fertilisation treatments of Norway spruce stands in Fennoscandia may significantly enhance the radial increment of individual trees, and cause only small or no detrimental changes in wood and tracheid properties.

Young people's perceptions of the wood products industry : a relational view

The basis for this study was in poor attractiveness of the wood products industry among young people as a field to study and work in. The purpose was to produce new information of how to improve the relationship between young people and the wood products industry in order to better attract young people with different relational orientation. A survey was conducted among students of comprehensive schools and students of wood industry at vocational schools selected by systematic cluster sampling. The final sample consisted of 613 students. The study combined the theories and concepts of relationships, communication and trust of several disciplines. In addition, it applied theories of relationship marketing, stakeholders, publics, involvement and concepts of reputation and values. It studied the central relational elements in the form of antecedents, relationship state and its consequences. The study examined, how young people with different background and level of interest perceive wood industry as a field to study and work in from relational point of view, what are the central deficiencies in perceived relational elements and what are the public relations activities enhancing the relationship between wood industry and young people with less and high interest in the sector. The results indicate poor visibility of the wood industry among young people: unfamiliarity with the industry and unawareness of the opportunities to study in the field. It appeared that instead of increasing only information sharing, interactive communication in different forms is needed. The study also suggests that behaviors of the industry sector advancing perceived trustworthiness are of crucial importance. Moreover, the wood industry needs to pay attention to its behaviors and communication also among other stakeholder groups, especially the media, as reputation plays an important role in building up trust and satisfaction between young people and the sector. Finally, the less and highly interested young people were found to assess the relationship partly through different relational elements. In order to develop the relationship with highly interested young people they should be regarded clearly as future employees of the wood industry through activities affirming that they are desired and valued employees in the sector. Further, openness of information disclosure, whether concerning current situation or future prospects, seems to increase credibility and attractiveness of the wood industry. Highly interested young people were also found to appreciate socially responsible activities. The less interested young people seem to be insecure about the reliability of the wood industry as an employer, as well as, its ability and interest to invest in young people s skills. In addition,involvement in issues relevant for young people was found crucial in enhancing the relationship with the less interested young people.The conclusions of the study provide tools for enhancing the attractiveness of the wood industry among young people not only to the industry itself, but also to its advocates, teachers and student counselors of comprehensive and vocational schools, authorities and policy makers.

Monitoring of Fungal Growth and Degradation of Wood

Valko- ja ruskolahosienet tunnetaan luonnossa tehokkaimpina puun ja karikkeen lignoselluloosan lahottajina. Valkolahosienet pystyvät hajottamaan kaikkia puun osia: ligniiniä, selluloosaa ja hemiselluloosaa. Selektiivisesti ligniiniä hajottavat sienet lahottavat puusta suhteessa enemmän vaikeasti hajoavaa ligniiniä kuin selluloosaa tai hemiselluloosaa, jolloin jäljelle jää valkoista ja miltei puhdasta selluloosaa. Bioteknisissä sovelluksissa juuri selektiviiviset valkolahottajat ovat kiinnostavia. Niiden avulla voidaan puuhaketta esikäsitellä esimerkiksi paperinvalmistuksessa haitallisen ligniinin poistamiseksi. Ruskolahosienet ovat huomattavia puun, puutavaran ja puisten rakenteiden lahottajia, kuten tässä työssä käytetty Gloeophyllum trabeum (saunasieni ) ja Poria (Postia) placenta (istukkakääpä). Ruskolahosienet hajottavat puusta hemiselluloosan lisäksi selluloosaa, jolloin jää jäljelle ruskea ja jauhomaiseksi mureneva ligniini. Ruskolahosienet muovaavat ligniiniä jonkin verran. Kahden ruskolahosienen G. trabeumin ja P. placentan lisäksi tutkittiin valkolahosieniä, joista Ceriporiopsis subvermispora (karstakääpä) ja harvinainen Physisporinus rivulosus -sieni (talikääpä) hajottavat ligniiniä erittäin selektiivisesti. Phanerochaete chrysosporium on kaikkialla paljon tutkittu sieni, ja Phlebia radiata valkolahosientä (rusorypykkä) on tutkittu paljon mikrobiologian osastolla. Lisäksi tutkittiin Phlebia tremellosa -sienten (hytyrypykkä) ligninolyyttisten entsyymien tuottoa ja 14C-leimatun synteettisen ligniinin (DHP) hajotusta. P. radiata ja P. tremellosa -sienten on todettu aiemmin hajottavan ligniiniä selektiivisesti. Työssä selvitettiin miten sienten kasvua voi mitata, miten vertailukelpoisia eri mittaamismenetelmillä saadut tulokset ovat ja ilmenevätkö sienten aktiivisimmat kasvuvaiheet samaan aikaan eri menetelmillä mitattuna. Tärkeimmät tulokset olivat seuraavat havainnot: (i) P. radiata ja P. tremellosa -sienikannat tuottivat ligniini- ja mangaaniperoksidaasientsyymejä (LiP ja MnP) sekä lakkaasia, ja sienistä puhdistettiin 2-3 LiP- ja P. radiatasta yksi MnP-entsyymi; (ii) P. tremellosa -sienet hajottivat leimattua synteettistä ligniiniä (DHP) yhtä hyvin kuin paljon tutkitut P. chrysosporium ja P. radiata -sienet; (iii) puu, sienen luonnollinen kasvualusta, lisäsi valkolaho- ja ruskolahosienten demetoksylaatiota [O14CH3]-leimatusta ligniinin malliyhdisteestä 14CO2:ksi ilman puuta olleeseen alustaan verrattuna; (iv) demetoksylaatio (14CO2:n tuotto) oli normaalissa ilma-atmosfäärissä useimmiten parempi happeen verrattuna; (v) hapessa paras 14CO2:n tuotto saatiin puupalakasvatuksissa, joihin oli lisätty ravinnetyppeä tai typen lisäksi glukoosia sekä valkolaho- että ruskolahosienillä; (vi) ilmassa 14CO2:n tuotto oli puulla voimakkainta valkolahosienillä ilman lisäravinteita, kun taas G. trabeum -sienellä se oli yhtä hyvä eri alustoissa; (vii) biomassan muodostuminen rihmastojen ergosterolipitoisuuksista mitattuna oli ruskolahosienillä parempi kuin valkolahosienillä; (viii) ja biomassojen huippupitoisuudet olivat 6:lla sienellä eri suuruisia ja niiden maksimimäärien ajankohdat vaihtelivat viiden viikon kasvatusten kuluessa. Mikrobiologian osastolla Viikissä eristetty ja paljon tutkittu P. radiata -valkolahosieni oli mukana kaikissa tehdyissä kokeissa. Sienen LiP-aktiivisuus ja 14CO2:n tuotto 14C-rengas-leimatusta synteettisestä ligniinistä (DHP) korreloivat erittäin hyvin. Biomassan muodostuminen ergosterolilla määritettynä tuki hyvin entsyymiaktiivisuusmittauksilla ja isotooppikasvatuksilla saatuja tuloksia.

The white-rot fungi Phlebia radiata and Dichomitus squalens in wood-based cultures: expression of laccases, lignin peroxidases, and oxalate decarboxylase

Basidiomycetous white-rot fungi are the only organisms that can efficiently decompose all the components of wood. Moreover, white-rot fungi possess the ability to mineralize recalcitrant lignin polymer with their extracellular, oxidative lignin-modifying enzymes (LMEs), i.e. laccase, lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), and versatile peroxidase (VP). Within one white-rot fungal species LMEs are typically present as several isozymes encoded by multiple genes. This study focused on two effi cient lignin-degrading white-rot fungal species, Phlebia radiata and Dichomitus squalens. Molecular level knowledge of the LMEs of the Finnish isolate P. radiata FBCC43 (79, ATCC 64658) was complemented with cloning and characterization of a new laccase (Pr-lac2), two new LiP-encoding genes (Pr-lip1, Pr-lip4), and Pr-lip3 gene that has been previously described only at cDNAlevel. Also, two laccase-encoding genes (Ds-lac3, Ds-lac4) of D. squalens were cloned and characterized for the first time. Phylogenetic analysis revealed close evolutionary relationships between the P. radiata LiP isozymes. Distinct protein phylogeny for both P. radiata and D. squalens laccases suggested different physiological functions for the corresponding enzymes. Supplementation of P. radiata liquid culture medium with excess Cu2+ notably increased laccase activity and good fungal growth was achieved in complex medium rich with organic nitrogen. Wood is the natural substrate of lignin-degrading white-rot fungi, supporting production of enzymes and metabolites needed for fungal growth and the breakdown of lignocellulose. In this work, emphasis was on solid-state wood or wood-containing cultures that mimic the natural growth conditions of white-rot fungi. Transcript analyses showed that wood promoted expression of all the presently known LME-encoding genes of P. radiata and laccase-encoding genes of D. squalens. Expression of the studied individual LME-encoding genes of P. radiata and D. squalens was unequal in transcript quantities and apparently time-dependent, thus suggesting the importance of several distinct LMEs within one fungal species. In addition to LMEs, white-rot fungi secrete other compounds that are important in decomposition of wood and lignin. One of these compounds is oxalic acid, which is a common metabolite of wood-rotting fungi. Fungi produce also oxalic-acid degrading enzymes of which the most widespread is oxalate decarboxylase (ODC). However, the role of ODC in fungi is still ambiguous with propositions from regulation of intra and extracellular oxalic acid levels to a function in primary growth and concomitant production of ATP. In this study, intracellular ODC activity was detected in four white-rot fungal species, and D. squalens showed the highest ODC activity upon exposure to oxalic acid. Oxalic acid was the most common organic acid secreted by the ODC-positive white-rot fungi and the only organic acid detected in wood cultures. The ODC-encoding gene Ds-odc was cloned from two strains of D. squalens showing the first characterization of an odc-gene from a white-rot polypore species. Biochemical properties of the D. squalens ODC resembled those described for other basidiomycete ODCs. However, the translated amino acid sequence of Ds-odc has a novel N-terminal primary structure with a repetitive Ala-Ser-rich region of ca 60 amino acid residues in length. Expression of the Ds-odc transcripts suggested a constitutive metabolic role for the corresponding ODC enzyme. According to the results, it is proposed that ODC may have an essential implication for the growth and basic metabolism of wood-decaying fungi.

The Miocene of Western Asia; Fossil mammals at the crossroads of faunal provinces and climate regimes

Being at the crossroads of the Old World continents, Western Asia has a unique position through which the dispersal and migration of mammals and the interaction of faunal bioprovinces occurred. Despite its critical position, the record of Miocene mammals in Western Asia is sporadic and there are large spatial and temporal gaps between the known fossil localities. Although the development of the mammalian faunas in the Miocene of the Old World is well known and there is ample evidence for environmental shifts in this epoch, efforts toward quantification of habitat changes and development of chronofaunas based on faunal compositions were mostly neglected. Advancement of chronological, paleoclimatological, and paleogeographical reconstruction tools and techniques and increased numbers of new discoveries in recent decades have brought the need for updating and modification of our level of understanding. We under took fieldwork and systematic study of mammalian trace and body fossils from the northwestern parts of Iran along with analysis of large mammal data from the NOW database. The data analysis was used to study the provinciality, relative abundance, and distribution history of the closed- and open-adapted taxa and chronofaunas in the Miocene of the Old World and Western Asia. The provinciality analysis was carried out, using locality clustering, and the relative abundance of the closed- and open-adapted taxa was surveyed at the family level. The distribution history of the chronofaunas was studied, using faunal resemblance indices and new mapping techniques, together with humidity analysis based on mean ordinated hypsodonty. Paleoichnological studies revealed the abundance of mammalian footprints in several parts of the basins studied, which are normally not fossiliferous in terms of body fossils. The systematic study and biochronology of the newly discovered mammalian fossils in northwestern Iran indicates their close affinities with middle Turolian faunas. Large cranial remains of hipparionine horses, previously unknown in Iran and Western Asia, are among the material studied. The initiation of a new field project in the famous Maragheh locality also brings new opportunities to address questions regarding the chronology and paleoenvironment of this classical site. Provinciality analysis modified our previous level of understandings, indicating the interaction of four provinces in Western Asia. The development of these provinces was apparently due to the presence of high mountain ranges in the area, which affected the dispersal of mammals and also climatic patterns. Higher temperatures and possibly higher co2 levels in the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum apparently favored the development of the closed forested environments that supported the dominance of the closed-adapted taxa. The increased seasonality and the progressive cooling and drying of the midlatitudes toward the Late Miocene maintained the dominance of open-adapted faunas. It appears that the late Middle Miocene was the time of transition from a more forested to a less forested world. The distribution history of the closed- and open-adapted chronofaunas shows the presence of cosmopolitan and endemic faunas in Western Asia. The closed-adapted faunas, such as the Arabian chronofauna of the late Early‒early Middle Miocene, demonstrated a rapid buildup and gradual decline. The open-adapted chronofaunas, such as the Late Miocene Maraghean fauna, climaxed gradually by filling the opening environments and moving in response to changes in humidity patterns. They abruptly declined due to demise of their favored environments. The Siwalikan chronofauna of the early Late Miocene remained endemic and restricted through all its history. This study highlights the importance of field investigations and indicates that new surveys in the vast areas of Western Asia, which are poorly sampled in terms of fossil mammal localities, can still be promising. Clustering of the localities supports the consistency of formerly known patterns and augments them. Although the quantitative approach to relative abundance history of the closed- and open-adapted mammals harks back to more than half a century ago, it is a novel technique providing robust results. Tracking the history of the chronofaunas in space and time by means of new computational and illustration methods is also a new practice that can be expanded to new areas and time spans.

Communities of wood-inhabiting fungi : Ecological requirements and responses to forest management and fragmentation

Despite much research on forest biodiversity in Fennoscandia, the exact mechanisms of species declines in dead-wood dependent fungi are still poorly understood. In particular, there is only limited information on why certain fungal species have responded negatively to habitat loss and fragmentation, while others have not. Understanding the mechanisms behind species declines would be essential for the design and development of ecologically effective and scientifically informed conservation measures, and management practices that would promote biodiversity in production forests. In this thesis I study the ecology of polypores and their responses to forest management, with a particular focus on why some species have declined more than others. The data considered in the thesis comprise altogether 98,318 dead-wood objects, with 43,085 observations of 174 fungal species. Out of these, 1,964 observations represent 58 red-listed species. The data were collected from 496 sites, including woodland key habitats, clear-cuts with retention trees, mature managed forests, and natural or natural-like forests in southern Finland and Russian Karelia. I show that the most relevant way of measuring resource availability can differ to a great extent between species seemingly sharing the same resources. It is thus critical to measure the availability of resources in a way that takes into account the ecological requirements of the species. The results show that connectivity at the local, landscape and regional scales is important especially for the highly specialized species, many of which are also red-listed. Habitat loss and fragmentation affect not only species diversity but also the relative abundances of the species and, consequently, species interactions and fungal successional pathways. Changes in species distributions and abundances are likely to affect the food chains in which wood-inhabiting fungi are involved, and thus the functioning of the whole forest ecosystem. The findings of my thesis highlight the importance of protecting well-connected, large and high-quality forest areas to maintain forest biodiversity. Small habitat patches distributed across the landscape are likely to contribute only marginally to protection of red-listed species, especially if habitat quality is not substantially higher than in ordinary managed forest, as is the case with woodland key habitats. Key habitats might supplement the forest protection network if they were delineated larger and if harvesting of individual trees was prohibited in them. Taking the landscape perspective into account in the design and development of conservation measures is critical while striving to halt the decline of forest biodiversity in an ecologically effective manner.