Digital elevation model error in terrain analysis

Digital elevation models (DEMs) have been an important topic in geography and surveying sciences for decades due to their geomorphological importance as the reference surface for gravita-tion-driven material flow, as well as the wide range of uses and applications. When DEM is used in terrain analysis, for example in automatic drainage basin delineation, errors of the model collect in the analysis results. Investigation of this phenomenon is known as error propagation analysis, which has a direct influence on the decision-making process based on interpretations and applications of terrain analysis. Additionally, it may have an indirect influence on data acquisition and the DEM generation. The focus of the thesis was on the fine toposcale DEMs, which are typically represented in a 5-50m grid and used in the application scale 1:10 000-1:50 000. The thesis presents a three-step framework for investigating error propagation in DEM-based terrain analysis. The framework includes methods for visualising the morphological gross errors of DEMs, exploring the statistical and spatial characteristics of the DEM error, making analytical and simulation-based error propagation analysis and interpreting the error propagation analysis results. The DEM error model was built using geostatistical methods. The results show that appropriate and exhaustive reporting of various aspects of fine toposcale DEM error is a complex task. This is due to the high number of outliers in the error distribution and morphological gross errors, which are detectable with presented visualisation methods. In ad-dition, the use of global characterisation of DEM error is a gross generalisation of reality due to the small extent of the areas in which the decision of stationarity is not violated. This was shown using exhaustive high-quality reference DEM based on airborne laser scanning and local semivariogram analysis. The error propagation analysis revealed that, as expected, an increase in the DEM vertical error will increase the error in surface derivatives. However, contrary to expectations, the spatial au-tocorrelation of the model appears to have varying effects on the error propagation analysis depend-ing on the application. The use of a spatially uncorrelated DEM error model has been considered as a 'worst-case scenario', but this opinion is now challenged because none of the DEM derivatives investigated in the study had maximum variation with spatially uncorrelated random error. Sig-nificant performance improvement was achieved in simulation-based error propagation analysis by applying process convolution in generating realisations of the DEM error model. In addition, typology of uncertainty in drainage basin delineations is presented.

Ohjailusta kilpailuun : Suomen hallitusten kasvu- ja rakennepolitiikka vuosina 1962-1999

The study examines the contents, changes and the causes of changes of the growth and structural policy exercised by Finnish governments in 1962-1999. The policy is evaluated e.g. on the basis of government programmes. It is divided in the study into three phases: the phase of guided economy 1962-77, the transition period 1977-91 and the phase of competitive economy 1991-99. The opening of the economy has been the central factor influencing the contents of the growth and structural policy. When dividing the policy into ten sectors, it was found that the sectors losing weight during the study period are agricultural and forest policies and welfare policy and the sectors increasing weight are labour policy and environmental policy. Though impacts of the changes in the general line of the growth and structural policy could be seen in sector policies, the breaks in sector policies did not necessarily coincide with the breaks in the general line of the policy. In the study, in particular, the impacts of the factors affecting growth and structural policy thinking (political changes, foreign influences and changes in economics) are evaluated. The policy was influenced more by the prevailing ideological climate ("the spirit of time") than by political changes. Until the 1970s foreign influences mainly came from those individual Western European countries, where the role of government planning was important and where the economic development was favourable. Some impacts from socialist countries could be seen at the end of the 1960s and at the beginning of the 1970s. Since the 1980s the role of international organisations became emphasised. Also the impacts of the changes in economics could be seen in the changes in the general line of the growth and structural policy.

Immunological Effects of Probiotic Bacteria in Prevention and Treatment of Allergic Diseases in Children

Epidemiological and experimental studies suggest that changes in gut microbial balance are associated with increases in the prevalence of allergic diseases. Probiotics are proposed to provide beneficial immunoregulatory signals which aid in oral tolerance achievement and alleviation of symptoms of allergic diseases. The present study evaluates both the immunological mechanisms of probiotics in infants with allergic diseases and their preventive aspect among infants prone to allergy. Furthermore, the purpose of the study was to characterise the immunological features of cord blood mononuclear cells (CBMCs) in infants at high genetic risk for allergy. GATA-3 expression (p = 0.03), interleukin (IL) -2(p = 0.026), and IL-5 (p = 0.013) secretion of stimulated CBMCs were higher in IgE-sensitized infants at age 2 than in non-allergic, non-sensitized infants. Lactobacillus GG (LGG) treatment increased secretion of IFN-γ by PBMCs in vitro in infants with cow s milk allergy (CMA) (p = 0.006) and in infants with IgE-associated eczema (p = 0.017), when compared to levels in the placebo group. A probiotic mixture, increased secretion of IL-4 by PBMCs in vitro in infants with CMA (p = 0.028), when compared with placebo-group levels. The LGG treatment induced higher plasma C-reactive protein (CRP) (p = 0.021) and IL-6 (p = 0.036) levels in infants with IgE-associated eczema than in the placebo group. The probiotic mixture induced higher plasma IL-10 levels in infants with eczema (p = 0.016). In the prevention study of allergic dis-eases, the infants receiving the probiotic mixture had higher plasma levels of CRP (p = 0.008), total IgA (p = 0.016), total IgE (p = 0.047), and IL-10 (p = 0.002) than did infants in the placebo group. Increased CRP level at age 6 months was associated with a decreased risk for eczema at age 2 not only in the infants who received probiotics but also in the placebo group (p = 0.034). In conclusion, the priming of the GATA-3 and IL-5 pathway can occur in utero, and a primary feature of T-cells predisposing to IgE-sensitization seems to directly favour Th2 deviation. LGG treatment induced increased plasma levels of CRP and IL-6 in infants with IgE-associated eczema, suggesting an activation of innate immu-nity. The probiotic mixture, when given to allergy-prone infants, induced inflammation, detected as increased plasma CRP levels, which at age 6 months was associated with decreased risk for eczema at age 2.The probiotic-induced response in allergy prone infants was characterized by their higher plasma IL-10, total IgE, and CRP levels, without induction of an allergen-specific IgE response. In this respect, the probiotics in infancy appear to induce protective immune profiles that are characteristic for chronic low-grade inflammation, a response resembling that of helminth-like infections.

Improving GPS time series for geodynamic studies

Accurate and stable time series of geodetic parameters can be used to help in understanding the dynamic Earth and its response to global change. The Global Positioning System, GPS, has proven to be invaluable in modern geodynamic studies. In Fennoscandia the first GPS networks were set up in 1993. These networks form the basis of the national reference frames in the area, but they also provide long and important time series for crustal deformation studies. These time series can be used, for example, to better constrain the ice history of the last ice age and the Earth s structure, via existing glacial isostatic adjustment models. To improve the accuracy and stability of the GPS time series, the possible nuisance parameters and error sources need to be minimized. We have analysed GPS time series to study two phenomena. First, we study the refraction in the neutral atmosphere of the GPS signal, and, second, we study the surface loading of the crust by environmental factors, namely the non-tidal Baltic Sea, atmospheric load and varying continental water reservoirs. We studied the atmospheric effects on the GPS time series by comparing the standard method to slant delays derived from a regional numerical weather model. We have presented a method for correcting the atmospheric delays at the observational level. The results show that both standard atmosphere modelling and the atmospheric delays derived from a numerical weather model by ray-tracing provide a stable solution. The advantage of the latter is that the number of unknowns used in the computation decreases and thus, the computation may become faster and more robust. The computation can also be done with any processing software that allows the atmospheric correction to be turned off. The crustal deformation due to loading was computed by convolving Green s functions with surface load data, that is to say, global hydrology models, global numerical weather models and a local model for the Baltic Sea. The result was that the loading factors can be seen in the GPS coordinate time series. Reducing the computed deformation from the vertical time series of GPS coordinates reduces the scatter of the time series; however, the long term trends are not influenced. We show that global hydrology models and the local sea surface can explain up to 30% of the GPS time series variation. On the other hand atmospheric loading admittance in the GPS time series is low, and different hydrological surface load models could not be validated in the present study. In order to be used for GPS corrections in the future, both atmospheric loading and hydrological models need further analysis and improvements.

The Negative News Threshold - an Explanation for Negative Skewness in Stock Returns

A vast literature documents negative skewness and excess kurtosis in stock return distributions on several markets. We approach the issue of negative skewness from a different angle than in previous studies by suggesting a model, which we denote the “negative news threshold” hypothesis, that builds on asymmetrically distributed information and symmetric market responses. Our empirical tests reveal that returns for days when non-scheduled news are disclosed are the source of negative skewness in stock returns. This finding lends solid support to our model and suggests that negative skewness in stock returns is induced by asymmetries in the news disclosure policies of firm management.

Eri maitohappobakteerien ja niiden annostustason vaikutus säilörehun käymislaatuun ja aerobiseen stabiilisuuteen

Tämän maisterin tutkielman tarkoituksena oli testata eri maitohappobakteerien ja niiden annostustason vaikutusta säilörehun käymislaatuun ja aerobiseen stabiilisuuteen. Biologisilla säilöntäaineilla eli ympeillä säilöttyjen rehujen laatua verrattiin kontrolleina toimiviin painorehuun ja muurahaishapolla tehtyyn rehuun. Koerehut tehtiin Helsingin yliopiston Maataloustieteiden laitoksella 7.6.2010. Timotei (Phleum pratense) - nurminata (Festuca pratensis) kasvusto korjattiin tähkimisen alkuvaiheessa D-arvon ollessa 711 g/kg ka. Nurmikasvuston kuiva-ainepitoisuus oli 170 g/kg heti niiton jälkeen määritettäessä ja neljän tunnin esikuivauksen jälkeen 208 g/kg. Rehuraaka-aine jaettiin kuuteen erään, joihin lisättiin säilöntäaine. Säilöntäainekäsittelyt olivat: 1) ei säilöntäainetta (painorehu), 2) muurahaishappo (100 %:na 4 l/t), 3) Lactobacillus plantarum ja Pediococcus acidilactici 1x10? pmy/g sekä pektinaasi-, ksylanaasi- ja sellulaasientsyymi, 4) L. plantarum 1x10? pmy/g, 5) L. plantarum 1x10? pmy/g ja 6) L. plantarum ja L. buchneri 2x10? pmy/g. Rehut säilöttiin laboratoriosiiloissa kolmena rinnakkaisena. Laboratoriosiilojen lisäksi rehua säilöttiin jokaisesta säilöntäainekäsittelystä kuuteen rinnakkaiseen minisiiloon säilönnän alkuajan fermentaation ja rehujen pH:n muutoksen seuraamiseksi. Minisiiloista seurattiin kaasuntuotantoa 21 päivän ajan. Raaka-aineen koostumus ja rehujen säilönnällinen laatu sekä aerobinen stabiilisuus määritettiin. Säilörehujen kuiva-ainepitoisuus oli suhteellisen pieni (n. 210 g/kg), jotta voitiin testata biologisten säilöntäaineiden tehoa märässä rehussa. Kosteassa rehussa biologisten säilöntäaineiden toiminnan onnistuminen on haastavaa. Koska raaka-aineen sokeripitoisuus oli kuitenkin erittäin suuri (196 g/kg ka), onnistui ymppirehujen säilöntä hyvin. Kaikkien koerehujen pH oli alle 4:n. Painorehu ei täyttänyt hyvän rehun kriteerejä ammoniumtypen osalta. Muurahaishapporehu oli laadultaan tyydyttävää etikkahapon pitoisuuden osalta. Rehussa tapahtui epätyypillistä etanolikäymistä hiivojen toimesta, jonka johdosta rehussa muodostui suuri määrä kaasua säilönnän aikana. Muurahaishapporehu ei kuitenkaan lämmennyt aerobisen stabiilisuuden mittauksen aikana, johtuen todennäköisesti suuresta etikkahapon määrästä ja toisaalta pienestä sokerin määrästä. Maitohappobakteerisäilöntäaineilla saatiin käymislaadultaan parempaa säilörehua verrattuna painorehuun, lukuun ottamatta maitohappobakteeri-entsyymirehua. Entsyymilisäyksestä ei todennäköisesti ollut hyötyä rehun säilöntälaadun kannalta. Raaka-aineen suuren sokeripitoisuuden johdosta säilörehussa oli koko säilönnän ajan tarpeeksi sokeria maitohappobakteerien käytettäväksi ja sokeri toimi siten substraattina haitallisille mikrobeille tuottaen suuren etikkahappopitoisuuden. Maitohappobakteeri-entsyymiseoksella tehty rehu oli etikkahappopitoisuuden perusteella heikkolaatuista. Lactobacillus plantarumin molemmilla annostustasoilla (1x10? ja 1x10? pmy/g rehua) saatiin laadultaan hyvää rehua. Suuri sokeripitoisuus molemmissa rehuissa johtui todennäköisesti raaka-aineen tavallista suuremmasta sokerin määrästä. Molempien rehujen maitohappo-etikkahappo-suhde oli melko korkea, viitaten homofermentatiiviseen maitohappokäymiseen. Lactobacillus buchneri –lisäyksellä rehu oli säilönnälliseltä laadultaan hyvää. Heterofermentatiivisen ympin lisäys nosti tyypillisesti rehun pH:ta sekä pienensi maitohappoetikkahappo-suhdelukua verrattuna homofermentatiiviseen ymppiin. L. buchneri –lisäys paransi hieman säilörehun aerobista stabiilisuutta verrattuna homofermentatiivisella maitohappobakteerilla säilöttyyn rehuun, mutta tulos ei ollut tilastollisesti merkitsevä.