The Far Eastern Question at the Washington Conference (1921-1922) with an outline of its implications for internal politics in China

This dissertation is a narrative account of the negotiations concerning the question of the Far East and the Shandong issue at the Washington Conference, leading to treaties, agreements and resolutions. In this dissertation, a certain stress is laid on the interaction between the Conference and the internal situation in China, particularly concerning the question of the implications of the Conference for Cabinet politics in Peking. Through the narrative account of the Conference, the general aim is an attempt to reassess the achievements of the Washington Conference. Too often the Washington Conference has been viewed negatively. The political aim behind the legal framework was to open the door to China as a sovereign State member of the international community whose territorial integrity was internationally recognized, despite its chaotic internal situation. It is undeniable that the Washington Conference opened a new chapter in modern Chinese history. The violations of the agreements concerning China that occurred in the 1930s should not lead to the belief that these agreements were of no value. Peace may not be lasting and evolves according to circumstances; agreements are transitory, and new situations need new arrangements. This dissertation tries to demonstrate that the agreements in themselves were not the cause of their failure, but the failure was due to the lack of determination on the part of the Signatories Powers to defend them.

Uniparental DNA markers and forensic genetics in Finland

Over the years, a wide range of methods to verify identity have been developed. Molecular markers have been used for identification since the 1920s, commencing with blood types and culminating with the advent of DNA techniques in the 1980s. Identification is required by authorities in many occasions, e.g. in disputed paternity cases, identification of deceased, or crime investigation. To clarify maternal and paternal lineages, uniparental DNA markers in mtDNA and Y-chromosome can be utilized. These markers have several advantages: male specific Y-chromosome can be used to identify a male from a mixture of male and female cells, e.g. in rape cases. MtDNA is durable and has a high copy number, allowing analyses even from old or degraded samples. However, both markers are lineage-specific, not individualizing, and susceptible to genetic drift. Prior to the application of any DNA marker in forensic casework, it is of utmost importance to investigate its qualities and peculiarities in the target population. Earlier studies on the Finnish population have shown reduced variation in the Y-chromosome, but in mtDNA results have been ambiguous. The obtained results confirmed the low diversity in Y-chromosome in Finland. Detailed population analysis revealed large regional differences, and extremely reduced diversity especially in East Finland. Analysis of the qualities affecting Y-chromosomal short tandem repeat (Y-STR) variation and mutation frequencies, and search of new polymorphic markers resulted a set of Y-STRs with especially high diversity in Finland. Contrary to Y-chromosome, neither reduced diversity nor regional differences were found in mtDNA within Finland. In fact, mtDNA diversity was found similar to other European populations. The revealed peculiarities in the uniparental markers are a legacy of the Finnish population history. The obtained results challenge the traditional explanation which emphasizes relatively recent founder effects creating the observed east-west patterns. Uniparentally inherited markers, both mtDNA and Y-chromosome, are applicable for identification purposes in Finland. By adjusting the analysed Y marker set to meet the characteristics of Finnish population, Y-chromosomal diversity increases and the regional differentiation decreases, resulting increase in discrimination power and thus usefulness of Y-chromosomal analysis in forensic casework.

Vanhukset ja päihteet. Sosiaalityöntekijöiden ja sosiaaliohjaajien käsityksiä ikääntyneiden päihteidenkäytöstä, palveluista ja päihdepalveluiden kehittämisestä

Ikääntyneiden päihteidenkäyttö on ajankohtainen ilmiö, joka kohdataan sosiaali- ja terveydenhuollon palvelujärjestelmän eri tasoilla aiempaa useammin. Tutkielmassani tarkastellaan empiirisen tutkimusaineiston avulla käsityksiä, joita vanhusten palveluiden sosiaalityöntekijät ja sosiaaliohjaajat liittävät ikääntyneiden päihteidenkäyttöön, palveluihin ja päihdepalveluiden kehittämiseen. Tutkimusaineistoni koostuu maaliskuussa 2010 tehdyistä Helsingin sosiaaliviraston vanhusten palveluiden sosiaalityöntekijöiden ja sosiaaliohjaajien haastatteluista (N=16). Haastattelut on toteutettu puolistrukturoituina teemahaastatteluina. Analyysimenetelmänä olen käyttänyt fenomenografista analyysia. Analyysin tulokset olen kuvannut kuvauskategorioina, joiden avulla esittelen käsityksiä ikääntyneiden päihteidenkäytöstä, palveluista ja päihdepalveluiden kehittämisestä. Tutkielmani teoreettinen viitekehys perustuu pääosin sosiaaligerontologi Jyrki Jyrkämän (2007) esittämään kuvaukseen ikääntyneiden päihteidenkäytöstä toimijuuden lajina. Huomioni kiinnittyy tässä tutkielmassa erityisesti sosiaalityöntekijöiden ja sosiaaliohjaajien kuvaamiin ikääntyneiden päihteidenkäyttöön, palveluihin ja päihdepalveluiden kehittämiseen liittämiin määrittelyihin, joita he käsityksillään ilmaisevat. Ikääntyneiden päihteidenkäyttö näyttäytyy tutkielmassani kompleksisena ja monisyisenä ilmiönä, johon määrittelyjä kohdistavat ikääntyneen henkilön lisäksi myös omaiset, muut läheiset ja palvelujärjestelmän työntekijät. Palvelujärjestelmän työntekijät kohtaavat ikääntyneiden päihdeasiakkaiden kanssa työskennellessään usein ammatillisen riittämättömyyden ja neuvottomuuden tunteita. Sosiaalityöntekijöiden ja sosiaaliohjaajien kuvaamien käsitysten mukaan palvelujärjestelmän kyky vastata päihteitä käyttävien ikääntyneiden henkilöiden tarpeisiin on rajallinen, koska avohuollon palvelut on suunnattu usein nuorille ja työikäisille aikuisille. Päihteidenkäyttö vaikuttaa myös omaishoitajien, hoitavien omaisten ja palvelutaloissa asuvien ikääntyneiden arkeen. Ilmiö voi jäädä näkymättömäksi, koska runsaasti päihteitä käyttävät ikääntyneet eivät usein hakeudu oma-aloitteisesti sosiaali- ja terveyspalveluiden piiriin. Päihteidenkäyttö voi määritellä ikääntyneiden päihteidenkäyttäjien palveluihin pääsyn ehtoja ja vaikuttaa heidän jäämiseensä palveluiden ulkopuolelle. Päihteidenkäytön aloittaminen myöhemmällä iällä liittyy usein ikääntyneiden elämässä tapahtuviin kielteisiin muutoksiin, joihin etsitään lohtua alkoholista. Asiakkaan tavoitteellinen arki ei näyttäydy ikääntyneen raitistumisena, vaan alkoholinkäytön vähentämisenä tai kykynä osallistua päihteidenkäytölle vaihtoehtoiseen toimintaan. Sosiaalityöntekijät ja sosiaaliohjaajat kuvaavat käsityksinään, että vanhusten palveluissa tarvittaisiin lisää päihdeaiheista koulutusta ja päihdeasioihin keskittyvää työnohjausta. Ikääntyneille päihteidenkäyttäjille tulisi tarjota moniammatillisia asiantuntijapalveluita joiden tuottajina voivat olla sosiaali- ja terveydenhuollon palvelujärjestelmän lisäksi kolmannen sektorin toimijat.

Äldres upplevelser av att flytta till ett servicehus

Mänga äldre är med om en förändring i deras hemmiljö. Ofta sker denna förändring dä den äldre inte klarar av att bo hemma längre. Jag är intresserad av hur äldre upplever denna förändring och om flytten päverkar känslan av att anpassa sig till ett nytt hem. Jag är ocksä intresserad av att undersöka vad den omgivande miljön betyder för den äldre och om hurudana känslor ett miljöombyte väcker hos den äldre. Jag har undersökt detta genom att halla en diskussionsgrupp för äldre som bor pä det finskspräkiga, kommunala servicehuset i Östra centrum. Diskussionsgruppen träffades en gang i veckan under en tidsperiod pä tvä mänader. Fyra äldre deltog aktivt i diskussionsgruppen. Som forskningsmetod har jag använt mig av narrativa livsberättelser. Jag bad de äldre i diskussionsgruppen om skrivna livsberättelser. Som forskningsmaterial användes dessutom de äldres skrivna dikter och tankar, bade nya men också gamla texter. Jag använde mig av narrativ analys enligt det paradigmatiska tänkandet. Jag farm sex olika huvudteman i mitt material: hemmets betydelse, miljöns betydelse, upplevelsen av att flytta till ett servicehus, sociala samverkan, värden och upplevelsen av älderdom. De äldre i min undersökning uppgav att miljöns betydelse hade ökat för dem efter att de flyttade tili servicehuset. De äldre uppskattade särskilt känslan av lugn och stillhet dä de vistades ute i naturen. Hemmets betydelse hade däremot sjunkit totalt. Ingen av de äldre uppgav lägenheten pä servicehuset vara ett hem för dem, utan främst använde de ordet rum. Upplevelsen av att flytta tili servicehuset hade för dem flesta i diskussionsgruppen värit positiv. Det som de äldre uppgav att de längtade mest efter pä servicehuset handlade förutom smä konkreta saker främst om dagliga hemsysslor. De äldre kände sig ocksä ensamma och en orsak tili detta var att den sociala samverkan uppgavs vara mycket fattig pä servicehuset. De viktigaste kalloina som jag har använt i denna undersökning är doktorsavhandlingarna av Anni Vilkko, Omaelämänkerta kohtaamispaikkana. Naisen elämän kerronta ja luenta (1997) och Annukka Klemola, Omasta kodista hoitokotiin. Etnografia keskipohjalaisten vanhusten siirtymävaiheesta (2006). Jag har ocksä utgått från Sinikka Hakonens Kirjoittaminen merkityksellistää elämää (2003).

Merkel cell carcinoma : Epidemiological study with special reference to polyomavirus and vascular factors in pathogenesis

Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare cutaneous malignancy that occurs predominantly on sun exposed skin areas. A new polyomavirus (MCPyV) was identified in MCC tumor tissues in 2008 suggesting that a viral infection might be an etiological factor. A typical MCC is a rapidly growing painless purple nodule. In its early stage it can be misjudged by its appearance as a cyst or abscess. Recurrences are common and approximately half of the patients will develop lymph node metastases and third of the patents will have distant metastases. It affects mostly elderly persons at an average age of 70 at the time of diagnosis. MCC was first described in 1972 and the first MCC patient in Finland was identified in 1983. MCC has been poorly recognized, but increased awareness and better diagnostic accuracy has increased the incidence since the early years. In this study, all cases with a notation of MCC during 1979 2008 were obtained from the Finnish Cancer Registry. Based on this data, the incidence is 0.11 for men and 0.12 for women. It is similar than that of other Nordic countries, but lower than in the USA. For clinical series, the files of patients diagnosed with MCC during 1983 2004 were reviewed, and the tissue samples were re-evaluated, if available (n=181). Third of the patients were men, and the most common site of the primary tumor was the head and neck (53%). The majority of the patients (86%) presented with a clinically node-negative (Stage I or II) disease, but the disease recurred in 38% of them. The treatment schemes were heterogeneous. No additional benefit from a wide margin (≥2 cm) was found compared to a margin of 0.1-1.9 cm, but intralesional excision was more often associated with local recurrence. None of the patients with Stage I-II disease who had received postoperative radiotherapy had local recurrence during the follow-up period. The 5-year relative survival ratio for Stage I disease was 68%, for Stage II 67%, for Stage III 16%, and for Stage IV 0%. The relative excess risk of death was significantly lower among women than among men. Some of these tissue samples were further analyzed for vascular invasion (n=126) by immunohistochemistry using vascular endothelial markers CD-31 and D2-40. Vascular invasion was seen in 93% of the samples and it was observed already in very small, <5mm tumors. The tissue samples were also analyzed for the presence of MCPyV by using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and quantitative PCR. MCPyV DNA was present in 80% of 114 samples studied. The patients with virus-positive tumors had better overall survival than patients with virus-negative tumors. Immunohistochemical analyses were performed for the expression of VEGFR-2 (n=21) and endostatin (n=19), but they had no prognostic value. Our results support the concept of treating MCC with margin-negative excision and radiotherapy to the tumor bed to reduce local recurrence. The finding of a high frequency of lymphovascular invasion reduces its value as a prognostic factor, but emphasizes the role of sentinel node biopsy even in very small primary MCC.

"Miksi lehmät pitää tappaa?" : Etnografinen tutkimus 2000-luvun alun huumemarkkinoista Helsingissä

The present study focuses on the drug market in Helsinki in the early 2000s, mainly on the dealing in and use of amphetamines, cannabis and the pharmaceutical Subutex. The drug market is usually analysed into upper, middle and lower level markets. These levels are very different in terms of their operating practices, although there may be some mingling. The present study is mainly concerned with drug dealers and users in the lower and middle level markets. Operations also differ depending on whether the dealing involves just one drug or several. Dealing in and using Subutex is a very different business from dealing and using home grown cannabis, for instance: both the customers and the dealers are mostly quite different. The study material was mostly collected through ethnographical field work, including observations and interviews. Interviews with officials and minutes of pre-trial investigations concerning aggravated drug crimes are also included. The study discusses the roles of dealers on the various levels of the drug market in Helsinki and traces activities at various levels. Ethnographical methods are employed to observe day-to-day drug dealing and use and leisure pursuits in private homes and in public premises. The study takes note of the risks inherent in drug dealing and estimates what kind of drug dealers can last the longest on the market without the authorities intervening. At the same time, the study discusses how small groups on the middle and lower levels of the drug market avoid control measures undertaken by the authorities and how the authorities address these groups. Moreover, the study discusses what the drug market is like in prison from the perspective of a drug dealer sent to prison, what their everyday lives are like after release, and how much money dealers on various levels of the drug market make. The study demonstrates that drug dealing in Helsinki, whether we consider the very top or the very bottom of the pyramid, is a far from rational pursuit. The undertakings are not very systematic; they are more a reaction to intoxicant addiction( s) and other problems caused by other dealers, the dealers own actions and the actions of the police. The everyday lives of drug dealers are often chaos only alleviated by drug use in the company of buyers or alone. If a drug dealer uses drugs himself/herself, things become even more complicated and a vicious circle develops. At the same time, everyday life is certainly exciting, and a drug dealer often has a highly eventful if brief life. Drug dealing is a very masculine pursuit, and there is a sort of macho code governing it, although this does not nearly always work as it should. This macho code, typically for illegal activities, involves the threat of violence as a control measure. Hence the untranslatable slang expression Kill the cows : the Finnish word for calf has the slang meaning snitch or police informant . No more cows, no more calves. But informing on others to the authorities is a fact of life in the drug-dealing world. Contributing factors to being reported to the authorities are the dealer s own mistakes and the actions of other dealers and the police. A determined drug dealer will not be deterred from drug dealing by a prison sentence. However, following time in prison only few dealers manage to gain an income from drug dealing commensurate with its risks.

"Pitää kuitenkin lähentyä sitä vangin roolia, vaikka ite ois toista mieltä" : Diskurssianalyyttinen tutkimus toiseuden rakentumisesta vankilaopetuksessa

The focus of this discourse analytical study was to review the meanings which prison education and its participants are given in the formal educational policy and to find out whether these meanings are agreed by the prison students. The intrestes of this thesis were to examine what kind of social and individual promises are related to the prison education and what kind of subject positions are possible to the prison students. The thesis was also interested in the meanings of education in different contexts. The aim of this study was to examine prison education especially for women. This thesis was based on Michel Foucault s ideas of power and the view of this study was directly critical. The prison education was seen as normalizing governance which tends to prepare its subjects to the normal. In this process of differentiating the normal and the abnormal the subjects of prison education are reconstructed as the others . The three research questions of this thesis were: how and what kind of prison education is reconstructed firstly in the strategy of prison education and secondly in the interviews. Thirdly it was questioned how and what kind of meanings gender receive in the discourse of prison education. The main data was consisted by the Finnish Criminal Sanctions Agency s document The Strategy of the Prison education for years 2008 2012 and the three interviews of women who participated to prison education. The interviews were made for this thesis in Autumn 2010. Two other Finnish Criminal Sanctions Agency s documents Prisoners in education (2007) and Visible women (2008) - the report of the working group on female prisoners were also used as subtext materials. The methods of critical and realistic discourse analysis and rhetorical analysis were applied in the analysis. The results of the thesis support the outlook of prison education as a form of normalizing governance which reconstruct the others position for the prison students. Prison education was seen supportive for personal life control and for integrating to the society. The participants of prison education repeated the official discourses in their accounts which is a signal of internalized governance. The interviewees also used different types of anti-discourses when forming implications of prison education.