Ecological restoration of forests in Fennoscandia : Defining reference stand structures and immediate effects of restoration.

The first aim of this thesis was to explore the structural characteristics of near-natural forests and to quantify how human utilization has changed them. For this, we examined the stand characteristics in Norway spruce Picea abies (L.) Karst-dominated old-growth stands in northwestern Russia and in old Scots pine Pinus sylvestris L.-dominated stands in three regions from southern Finland to northwestern Russia. In the second study, we also compared stands with different degrees of human impact, from near-natural stands and stands selectively cut in the past to managed stands. Secondly, we used an experimental approach to study the short-term effects of different restorative treatments on forest structure and regeneration in managed Picea abies stands in southern Finland. Restorative treatments consisted of a partial cut combined with three levels of coarse woody debris retention, and a fire/no-fire treatment. In addition, we examined burned and unburned reference stands without cutting treatments. Results from near-natural Picea abies forests emphasize the dynamic character of old-growth forests, the variety of late-successional forest structures, and the fact that extended time periods are needed to attain certain late-successional stages with specific structural and habitat attributes, such as large-diameter deciduous trees and a variety of deadwood. The results from old Pinus sylvestris-dominated forests showed that human impact in the form of forest utilization and fire exclusion has strongly modified and reduced the structural complexity of stands. Consequently, small protected forest fragments in Finland may not serve as valid natural reference areas for forest restoration. However, results from the restoration experiment showed that early-successional natural stand characteristics can be restored to structurally impoverished managed Picea abies stands, despite a significant portion of wood volume being harvested. A variety of restoration methods is needed, due to differences in the condition of the forest when restoration is initiated and the variety of successional stages of forest structures after anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Keywords: dead wood, disturbance dynamic, fire, near-natural stand, rehabilitation, succession

Young people's perceptions of the wood products industry : a relational view

The basis for this study was in poor attractiveness of the wood products industry among young people as a field to study and work in. The purpose was to produce new information of how to improve the relationship between young people and the wood products industry in order to better attract young people with different relational orientation. A survey was conducted among students of comprehensive schools and students of wood industry at vocational schools selected by systematic cluster sampling. The final sample consisted of 613 students. The study combined the theories and concepts of relationships, communication and trust of several disciplines. In addition, it applied theories of relationship marketing, stakeholders, publics, involvement and concepts of reputation and values. It studied the central relational elements in the form of antecedents, relationship state and its consequences. The study examined, how young people with different background and level of interest perceive wood industry as a field to study and work in from relational point of view, what are the central deficiencies in perceived relational elements and what are the public relations activities enhancing the relationship between wood industry and young people with less and high interest in the sector. The results indicate poor visibility of the wood industry among young people: unfamiliarity with the industry and unawareness of the opportunities to study in the field. It appeared that instead of increasing only information sharing, interactive communication in different forms is needed. The study also suggests that behaviors of the industry sector advancing perceived trustworthiness are of crucial importance. Moreover, the wood industry needs to pay attention to its behaviors and communication also among other stakeholder groups, especially the media, as reputation plays an important role in building up trust and satisfaction between young people and the sector. Finally, the less and highly interested young people were found to assess the relationship partly through different relational elements. In order to develop the relationship with highly interested young people they should be regarded clearly as future employees of the wood industry through activities affirming that they are desired and valued employees in the sector. Further, openness of information disclosure, whether concerning current situation or future prospects, seems to increase credibility and attractiveness of the wood industry. Highly interested young people were also found to appreciate socially responsible activities. The less interested young people seem to be insecure about the reliability of the wood industry as an employer, as well as, its ability and interest to invest in young people s skills. In addition,involvement in issues relevant for young people was found crucial in enhancing the relationship with the less interested young people.The conclusions of the study provide tools for enhancing the attractiveness of the wood industry among young people not only to the industry itself, but also to its advocates, teachers and student counselors of comprehensive and vocational schools, authorities and policy makers.

Biochemical and structural properties of Potato virus A VPg

The potato virus A (PVA) genome linked protein (VPg) is a multifunctional protein that takes part in vital infection cycle events such as replication and movement of the virus from cell to cell. VPg is attached to the 5´ end of the genome and is carried in the tip structure of the filamentous virus particle. VPg is also the last protein to be cleaved from the polyprotein. VPg interacts with several viral and host proteins and is phosphorylated at several positions. These features indicate a central role in virus epidemiology and a requirement for an efficient but flexible mechanism for switching between different functions. -- This study examines some of the key VPg functions in more detail. Mutations in the positively charged region from Ala38 to Lys44 affected the NTP binding, uridylylation, and in vitro translation inhibition activities of VPg, whereas in vivo translation inhibition was not affected. Some of the data generated in this study implicated the structural flexibility of the protein in functional activities. VPg lacks a rigid structure, which could allow it to adapt conformationally to different functions as needed. A major finding of this study is that PVA VPg belongs to the class of ´intrinsically disordered proteins´ (IDPs). IDPs are a novel protein class that has helped to explain the observed lack of structure. The existence of IDPs clearly shows that proteins can be functional and adapt a native fold without a rigid structure. Evidence for the intrinsic disorder of VPg was provided by CD spectroscopy, NMR, fluorescence spectroscopy, bioinformatic analysis, and limited proteolytic digestion. The structure of VPg resembles that of a molten globule-type protein and has a hydrophobic core domain. Approximately 50% of the protein is disordered and an α-helical stabilization of these regions has been hypothesized. Surprisingly, VPg structure was stabilized in the presence of anionic lipid vesicles. The stabilization was accompanied by a change in VPg structure and major morphological modifications of the vesicles, including a pronounced increase in the size and appearance of pore or plaque like formations on the vesicle surface. The most likely scenario seems to be an α-helical stabilization of VPg which induces formation of a pore or channel-like structure on the vesicle surface. The size increase is probably due to fusion or swelling of the vesicles. The latter hypothesis is supported by the evident disruption of the vesicles after prolonged incubation with VPg. A model describing the results is presented and discussed in relation to other known properties of the protein.

Genetic and environmental influences on human responses to odors

Olfaction, the sense of smell, has many important functions in humans. Human responses to odors show substantial individual variation. Olfactory receptor genes have been identified and other genes may also influence olfaction. However, the proportion of phenotypic variation in odor response due to genetic variation remains largely unknown. Little is also known about which genes modify specific responses to odors. This study aimed to elucidate genetic and environmental influences on human responses to odors. Individuals from Finnish families (n=146) and Australian (n=413), British (n=163), Danish (n=336), and Finnish (n=399) twins rated intensity and pleasantness of a set of 12 (families) or 6 (twins) odors and tried to identify the odors. In addition, the participants rated their own sense of smell and annoyance experienced with different environmental odors. The odor stimuli of a commercial smell test (The Brief Smell Identification Test; banana, chocolate, cinnamon, gasoline, lemon, onion, paint thinner, pineapple, rose, smoke, soap, and turpentine) were presented in the family study. Based on the results of the family study and a literature survey, a new set of odor stimuli (androstenone, chocolate, cinnamon, isovaleric acid, lemon, and turpentine) was designed for the twin studies. In the family sample, heritabilities of the traits were estimated and underlying genomic regions were searched using a genome-wide linkage scan. In the pooled twin sample, variation in the measured traits was decomposed into genetic and environmental components using quantitative genetic modeling. In addition, associations between nongenetic factors (e.g., sex, age, and smoking) and olfactory-related traits were explored. Suggestive evidence for a genetic linkage for pleasantness of cinnamon at a locus on chromosome 4q32.3 emerged from the family sample. High heritability for the pleasantness of cinnamon was found in the family but not the twin study. Heritability of perceived intensity of androstenone odor was determined to be ~30% in the twin sample. A strong genetic correlation between perceived intensity and pleasantness of androstenone, in the absence of any environmental correlation, indicated that only the genetic correlation explained the phenotypic correlation between the traits (r=-0.27) and that the traits were influenced by an overlapping set of genes. Self-rated olfactory function appeared to reflect the odor annoyance experienced rather than actual olfactory acuity or genetic involvement. Results from nongenetic analyses supported the speculated superiority of females' olfactory abilities, the age-related diminishing of olfactory acuity, and the influences of experience-dependent factors on odor responses. This was the first study to estimate heritabilities and perform linkage screens for individual odors. A genetic effect was detected for only a few responses to specific odors, suggesting the predominance of environmental effects in odor perceptions.

Bacillus cereus spores and cereulide in food-borne illness

B. cereus is a gram-positive bacterium that possesses two different forms of life:the large, rod-shaped cells (ca. 0.002 mm by 0.004 mm) that are able to propagate and the small (0.001 mm), oval shaped spores. The spores can survive in almost any environment for up to centuries without nourishment or water. They are insensitive towards most agents that normally kill bacteria: heating up to several hours at 90 ºC, radiation, disinfectants and extreme alkaline (≥ pH 13) and acid (≤ pH 1) environment. The spores are highly hydrophobic and therefore make them tend to stick to all kinds of surfaces, steel, plastics and live cells. In favorable conditions the spores of B. cereus may germinate into vegetative cells capable of producing food poisoning toxins. The toxins can be heat-labile protein formed after ingestion of the contaminated food, inside the gastrointestinal tract (diarrhoeal toxins), or heat stable peptides formed in the food (emesis causing toxin, cereulide). Cereulide cannot be inactivated in foods by cooking or any other procedure applicable on food. Cereulide in consumed food causes serious illness in human, even fatalities. In this thesis, B. cereus strains originating from different kinds of foods and environments and 8 different countries were inspected for their capability of forming cereulide. Of the 1041 isolates from soil, animal feed, water, air, used bedding, grass, dung and equipment only 1.2 % were capable of producing cereulide, whereas of the 144 isolates originating from foods 24 % were cereulide producers. Cereulide was detected by two methods: by its toxicity towards mammalian cells (sperm assay) and by its peculiar chemical structure using liquid-chromatograph-mass spectrometry equipment. B. cereus is known as one of the most frequent bacteria occurring in food. Most foods contain more than one kind of B. cereus. When randomly selected 100 isolates of B. cereus from commercial infant foods (dry formulas) were tested, 11% of these produced cereulide. Considering a frequent content of 103 to 104 cfu (colony forming units) of B. cereus per gram of infant food formula (dry), it appears likely that most servings (200 ml, 30 g of the powder reconstituted with water) may contain cereulide producers. When a reconstituted infant formula was inoculated with >105 cfu of cereulide producing B. cereus per ml and left at room temperature, cereulide accumulated to food poisoning levels (> 0.1 mg of cereulide per serving) within 24 hours. Paradoxically, the amount of cereulide (per g of food) increased 10 to 50 fold when the food was diluted 4 - 15 fold with water. The amount of the produced cereulide strongly depended on the composition of the formula: most toxin was formed in formulas with cereals mixed with milk, and least toxin in formulas based on milk only. In spite of the aggressive cleaning practices executed by the modern dairy industry, certain genotypes of B. cereus appear to colonise the silos tanks. In this thesis four strategies to explain their survival of their spores in dairy silos were identified. First, high survival (log 15 min kill ≤ 1.5) in the hot alkaline (pH >13) wash liquid, used at the dairies for cleaning-in-place. Second, efficient adherence of the spores to stainless steel from cold water. Third, a cereulide producing group with spores characterized by slow germination in rich medium and well preserved viability when exposed to heating at 90 ºC. Fourth, spores capable of germinating at 8 ºC and possessing the psychrotolerance gene, cspA. There were indications that spores highly resistant to hot 1% sodium hydroxide may be effectively inactivated by hot 0.9% nitric acid. Eight out of the 14 dairy silo tank isolates possessing hot alkali resistant spores were capable of germinating and forming biofilm in whole milk, not previously reported for B. cereus. In this thesis it was shown that cereulide producing B. cereus was capable of inhibiting the growth of cereulide non-producing B. cereus occurring in the same food. This phenomenon, called antagonism, has long been known to exist between B. cereus and other microbial species, e.g. various species of Bacillus, gram-negative bacteria and plant pathogenic fungi. In this thesis intra-species antagonism of B. cereus was shown for the first time. This brother-killing did not depend on the cereulide molecule, also some of the cereulide non-producers were potent antagonists. Interestingly, the antagonistic clades were most frequently found in isolates from food implicated with human illness. The antagonistic property was therefore proposed in this thesis as a novel virulence factor that increases the human morbidity of the species B. cereus, in particular of the cereulide producers.

Land leasing, land degradation and agricultural productivity in Finland

This study analysed whether the land tenure insecurity problem has led to a decline in long-term land improvements (liming and phosphorus fertilization) under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Nordic production conditions in European Union (EU) countries such as Finland. The results suggests that under traditional cash lease contracts, which are encouraged by the existing land leasing regulations and agricultural subsidy programs, the land tenure insecurity problem on leased land reduces land improvements that have a long pay-back period. In particular, soil pH was found to be significantly lower on land cultivated under a lease contract compared to land owned by the farmers themselves. The results also indicate that land improvements could not be reversed by land markets, because land owners would otherwise have carried out land improvements even if not farming by themselves. To reveal the causality between land tenure and land improvements, the dynamic optimisation problem was solved by a stochastic dynamic programming routine with known parameters for one-period returns and transition equations. The model parameters represented Finnish soil quality and production conditions. The decision rules were solved for alternative likelihood scenarios over the continuation of the fixed-term lease contract. The results suggest that as the probability of non-renewal of the lease contract increases, farmers quickly reduce investments in irreversible land improvements and, thereafter, yields gradually decline. The simulations highlighted the observed trends of a decline in land improvements on land parcels that are cultivated under lease contracts. Land tenure has resulted in the neglect of land improvement in Finland. This study aimed to analyze whether these challenges could be resolved by a tax policy that encourages land sales. Using Finnish data, real estate tax and a temporal relaxation on the taxation of capital gains showed some potential for the restructuring of land ownership. Potential sellers who could not be revealed by traditional logit models were identified with the latent class approach. Those landowners with an intention to sell even without a policy change were sensitive to temporal relaxation in the taxation of capital gains. In the long term, productivity and especially productivity growth are necessary conditions for the survival of farms and the food industry in Finland. Technical progress was found to drive the increase in productivity. The scale had only a moderate effect and for the whole study period (1976–2006) the effect was close to zero. Total factor productivity (TFP) increased, depending on the model, by 0.6–1.7% per year. The results demonstrated that the increase in productivity was hindered by the policy changes introduced in 1995. It is also evidenced that the increase in land leasing is connected to these policy changes. Land institutions and land tenure questions are essential in agricultural and rural policies on all levels, from local to international. Land ownership and land titles are commonly tied to fundamental political, economic and social questions. A fair resolution calls for innovative and new solutions both on national and international levels. However, this seems to be a problem when considering the application of EU regulations to member states inheriting divergent landownership structures and farming cultures. The contribution of this study is in describing the consequences of fitting EU agricultural policy to Finnish agricultural land tenure conditions and heritage.

Intensity, productivity and efficiency in agriculture in Finland and implications for N and P fertiliser management

The purpose of this study was to evaluate intensity, productivity and efficiency in agriculture in Finland and show implications for N and P fertiliser management. Environmental concerns relating to agricultural production have been and still are focused on arguments about policies that affect agriculture. These policies constrain production while demand for agricultural products such as food, fibre and energy continuously increase. Therefore the importance of increasing productivity is a great challenge to agriculture. Over the last decades producers have experienced several large changes in the production environment such as the policy reform when Finland joined the EU 1995. Other and market changes occurred with the further EU enlargement with neighbouring countries in 2005 and with the decoupling of supports over the 2006-2007 period. Decreasing prices a decreased number of farmers and decreased profitability in agricultural production have resulted from these changes and constraints and of technological development. It is known that the accession to the EU 1995 would herald changes in agriculture. Especially of interest was how the sudden changes in prices of commodities on especially those of cereals, decreased by 60%, would influence agricultural production. The knowledge of properties of the production function increased in importance as a consequence of price changes. A research on the economic instruments to regulate productions was carried out and combined with earlier studies in paper V. In paper I the objective was to compare two different technologies, the conventional farming and the organic farming, determine differences in productivity and technical efficiency. In addition input specific or environmental efficiencies were analysed. The heterogeneity of agricultural soils and its implications were analysed in article II. In study III the determinants of technical inefficiency were analysed. The aspects and possible effects of the instability in policies due to a partial decoupling of production factors and products were studied in paper IV. Consequently connection between technical efficiency based on the turnover and the sales return was analysed in this study. Simple economic instruments such as fertiliser taxes have a direct effect on fertiliser consumption and indirectly increase the value of organic fertilisers. However, fertiliser taxes, do not fully address the N and P management problems adequately and are therefore not suitable for nutrient management improvements in general. Productivity of organic farms is lower on average than conventional farms and the difference increases when looking at selling returns only. The organic sector needs more research and development on productivity. Livestock density in organic farming increases productivity, however, there is an upper limit to livestock densities on organic farms and therefore nutrient on organic farms are also limited. Soil factors affects phosphorous and nitrogen efficiency. Soils like sand and silt have lower input specific overall efficiency for nutrients N and P. Special attention is needed for the management on these soils. Clay soils and soils with moderate clay content have higher efficiency. Soil heterogeneity is cause for an unavoidable inefficiency in agriculture.

Topographical, structural and geophysical characterization of fracture zones: implications for groundwater flow and vulnerability

The main objective of this study is to evaluate selected geophysical, structural and topographic methods on regional, local, and tunnel and borehole scales, as indicators of the properties of fracture zones or fractures relevant to groundwater flow. Such information serves, for example, groundwater exploration and prediction of the risk of groundwater inflow in underground construction. This study aims to address how the features detected by these methods link to groundwater flow in qualitative and semi-quantitative terms and how well the methods reveal properties of fracturing affecting groundwater flow in the studied sites. The investigated areas are: (1) the Päijänne Tunnel for water-conveyance whose study serves as a verification of structures identified on regional and local scales; (2) the Oitti fuel spill site, to telescope across scales and compare geometries of structural assessment; and (3) Leppävirta, where fracturing and hydrogeological environment have been studied on the scale of a drilled well. The methods applied in this study include: the interpretation of lineaments from topographic data and their comparison with aeromagnetic data; the analysis of geological structures mapped in the Päijänne Tunnel; borehole video surveying; groundwater inflow measurements; groundwater level observations; and information on the tunnel s deterioration as demonstrated by block falls. The study combined geological and geotechnical information on relevant factors governing groundwater inflow into a tunnel and indicators of fracturing, as well as environmental datasets as overlays for spatial analysis using GIS. Geophysical borehole logging and fluid logging were used in Leppävirta to compare the responses of different methods to fracturing and other geological features on the scale of a drilled well. Results from some of the geophysical measurements of boreholes were affected by the large diameter (gamma radiation) or uneven surface (caliper) of these structures. However, different anomalies indicating more fractured upper part of the bedrock traversed by well HN4 in Leppävirta suggest that several methods can be used for detecting fracturing. Fracture trends appear to align similarly on different scales in the zone of the Päijänne Tunnel. For example, similarities of patterns were found between the regional magnetic trends, correlating with orientations of topographic lineaments interpreted as expressions of fracture zones. The same structural orientations as those of the larger structures on local or regional scales were observed in the tunnel, even though a match could not be made in every case. The size and orientation of the observation space (patch of terrain at the surface, tunnel section, or borehole), the characterization method, with its typical sensitivity, and the characteristics of the location, influence the identification of the fracture pattern. Through due consideration of the influence of the sampling geometry and by utilizing complementary fracture characterization methods in tandem, some of the complexities of the relationship between fracturing and groundwater flow can be addressed. The flow connections demonstrated by the response of the groundwater level in monitoring wells to pressure decrease in the tunnel and the transport of MTBE through fractures in bedrock in Oitti, highlight the importance of protecting the tunnel water from a risk of contamination. In general, the largest values of drawdown occurred in monitoring wells closest to the tunnel and/or close to the topographically interpreted fracture zones. It seems that, to some degree, the rate of inflow shows a positive correlation with the level of reinforcement, as both are connected with the fracturing in the bedrock. The following geological features increased the vulnerability of tunnel sections to pollution, especially when several factors affected the same locations: (1) fractured bedrock, particularly with associated groundwater inflow; (2) thin or permeable overburden above fractured rock; (3) a hydraulically conductive layer underneath the surface soil; and (4) a relatively thin bedrock roof above the tunnel. The observed anisotropy of the geological media should ideally be taken into account in the assessment of vulnerability of tunnel sections and eventually for directing protective measures.

Määrittelyvaiheen vaatimusten vaikutukset käyttöliittymään

Tässä työssä tutkitaan, miten vaatimusmäärittelydokumenttiin kirjatut vaatimukset kiinnittävät myöhemmissä ohjelmistokehitysprosessin vaiheissa tehtäviä käyttöliittymäratkaisuja. Lisäksi tutkitaan, jääkö käyttöliittymästä puuttumaan todellisissa käyttötilanteissa tarvittavia toimintoja, kun vaatimusmäärittely toteutetaan perinteisen vesiputousmallin mukaisesti. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan kahden Helsingin yliopiston ohjelmistotuotantoprojekti-kurssilla toteutetun opiskelijaprojektin tuotoksia. Tutkimuksessa selvitetään oppilaiden tuottamien käyttöliittymien keskeisimmät käyttöliittymäongelmat simulointitestaamalla käyttöliittymät. Testauksessa simuloitiin ohjelmiston kolme keskeisintä käyttötilannetta, jotka selvitettiin tekemällä kontekstuaalinen käyttäjähaastattelu yhdelle opettajatuutorille. Tämän jälkeen etsittiin, löytyvätkö ongelmien syyt ryhmien vaatimusmäärittelydokumentteihin kirjatuista käyttötapauskuvauksista tai muista vaatimuksista. Tämän työn keskeisimpinä tuloksina selvisi, että käyttötapaukset sitoivat aina toiminnon ja sen toteutuksen käyttöliittymässä, mutta vain pieni osa niistä kiinnitti käyttöliittymäratkaisuja haitallisesti. Vakavien tehokkuusongelmien ja järjestelmästä puuttuvan toiminnallisuuden syyt kuitenkin olivat nimenomaan vaatimusmäärittelydokumentin käyttötapauksissa. Muut vaatimukset kiinnittivät toimintoja niin korkealla tasolla, ettei niistä muodostunut ongelmallisia käyttöliittymäratkaisuja. Lisäksi havaittiin, että molemmista vaatimusmäärittelyistä oli jäänyt pois sellaisia toimintoja, joita oltaisiin tarvittu käyttötilanteen suorittamiseen tehokkaasti. Vaikuttaisi siltä, että vaatimusmäärittelyvaiheessa ei ole saatu selville käyttäjän todellisia käyttötilanteita, minkä seurauksena vaatimuksista on jäänyt pois oleellisia toimintoja.

Rikosoikeuden lievemmän lain periaate

Tuomioistuimissa käsiteltävissä rikosasioissa tulee usein eteen tilanteita, joissa rikokseen sovellettava lainsäädäntö on rikoksen tekohetken jälkeen joiltain osin muuttunut. Suomessa on vakiintuneesti katsottu, että tällöin sovelletaan pääsääntöisesti rikoksen tekohetken lakia. Jos lainsäädäntö on muuttunut syytetylle edullisemmaksi, tulee kuitenkin tämä tuomitsemishetken lievempi laki sovellettavaksi. Tätä kutsutaan siis rikosoikeuden lievemmän lain periaatteeksi. Sääntö on perusajatukseltaan yksinkertainen, mutta siihen liittyy monia kysymyksiä, joihin lain sanamuoto ei anna vastausta. Tämän kirjoituksen tarkoitus on tuoda esiin näitä kysymyksiä, ja mahdollisimman paljon pyrkiä myös vastaamaan niihin. Lievemmän lain periaatteen soveltamisen ulkopuolelle jäävät lain mukaan määräaikaisiksi tarkoitetut kriminalisoinnit sekä blankorangaistussäännökset. Myös prosessuaaliset seikat on jätetty periaatteen soveltamisalan ulkopuolelle, joitain syyteoikeutta koskevia poikkeuksia lukuun ottamatta. Lakien vertailu tehdään kussakin yksittäistapauksessa erikseen. Tuomioistuimen tulee suorittaa huolellinen soveltamiskoe ja ratkaista asia kokeellisesti kummankin sääntelyn mukaan. Soveltamiskokeessa joudutaan usein arvioimaan tunnusmerkistöissä ja määritelmissä tai yleisissä opeissa tapahtuneita muutoksia. Lopputulosten vertailussa tarkasteltavaksi tulevat niin päärangaistus kuin mahdolliset oheisseuraamukset ja turvaamistoimenpiteetkin. Erimielisyyttä vallitsee kuitenkin siitä, tuleeko ratkaisussa soveltaa vain toisen ajan lainsäädäntöä, vai voidaanko eri aikoina voimassa olleista lainsäädännöistä poimia syytetylle edullisempia palasia ja soveltaa niitä yhdessä. Itse olen sitä mieltä, että tuomioistuimen olisi valittava joko tekohetken tai tuomitsemishetken lainsäädäntö ja sovellettava sitä kokonaisuutena. KP -sopimuksen 15 artikla edellyttää periaatteen soveltamista myös muutoksenhaussa. Näyttäisi siltä, että joissain tapauksissa periaatetta olisi sovellettava vielä lainvoimaisen tuomion täytäntöönpanossakin.

Sangen ialo Rucous : Schwenckfeldiläisten rukouskirja Mikael Agricolan lähteenä

Sangen ialo Rucous. The prayer book of the Schwenckfeldiens as a source for Michael Agricola The significance of the prayer book published by the Finnish reformer Michael Agricola in the year of 1544 has not been comprehended enough among the prayer literature of the Reformation century. Especially in foreign research literature one of the era s most extensive and versatile prayer books has been practically disregarded. According to the prayer book, Agricola appears to be a traditionalist, who derives most of his source material from medieval and old church prayer books. The low number of the prayers from Evangelical prayer books is noteworthy. The study in hand examines Agricola s theology expressed in his translation work of the prayer book of the mystic spiritualistic Schwenckfeldien movement. The prayer book of the Schwenckdeldiens diverged from Lutheranism was called Bekantnus der sünden and it was composed around the year of 1526. Agricola is the only prayer book collector who has regarded it as necessary to add all the 45 prayers of the Schwenckfeldien prayer book and its introduction to his book. In the prayers containing the Schwenckfeldien communion theology and Christology Agricola has not changed the content of the text, apparently because he was not aware of the problems involved in the Schwenckfeldien theology. On a few occasions Agricola added points of view concerning the church, priesthood, preaching the Word and sacraments to his prayers, which the Schwenckfeldiens despised. From the ten additions four Agricola created himself, the rest he borrowed from Wolfgang Capito s prayer book. As a source Agricola used Capito s Latin prayer book together with the German text from Bekantnus. When looking at the studied material, Agricola does not turn out to be a creative translator. Even though he had a model for a less restricted translation in Wolfgang Capito s prayer book, he sticks to his habit of translating word by word. Because not even a good example has had a liberating effect on his translation principles, Agricola cannot be considered a theologically orientated writer. The translation of the Schwenckfeldien prayers Agricola starts with Capito s prayer book. Very soon he takes the Bekantnus alongside Capito s text and abandons the use of Capito s prayer book in the middle of the translation process. Comparing Agricola s translation with the two texts in different languages has made it possible to create the disposition theory described above. On the basis of the disposition theory it can be concluded that Agricola first worked out a precise plan for his prayer book. Then he translated prayers theme by theme using multiple sources at the same time. Later Agricola fixed the disposition, which does not seem to have a direct paragon. From the prayers of the Schwenckfeldien prayer book Agricola translated 26 texts using the Bekantnus as an only base, from Capito s prayer book he translated four texts and 17 texts he translated using the two basic texts simultaneously. In the previous studies, words and texts added by Agricola have been examined as one problem unit. In this study the additions have been placed into three different categories: additions consequential on tautological parataxis, specifying additions and additions significant to the content. Due to Agricola s meticulous translation techniques, there are so few additions. Agricola does not show his own creativity even in the additions significant to the content but uses there some complete sentences or word fragments from the other prayers he has translated. In the translations of the prayers there are some unique appearing words and the analysis of the translation work shed a new light on the background of their first literary appearance in Finnish. Agricola s linguistic abilities turned out to be great. In those prayers where Agricola uses both the German and Latin basic texts at the same time, the translation process is a very intensive twine made on the basis of the two sources.

"Nyt mä oon suomalainen ... varmaan" : Nuoret maahanmuuttajat, etnisyys ja rasismi

Tutkimuksessa on tarkasteltu nuorten maahanmuuttajien etnistä identifioitumista sekä sitä, miten he määrittelevät rasismin omien kokemustensa kautta. Analyysi jakautuu kahteen osaan: nuorten identteettipohdintoihin ja rasismin reflektoimiseen. Tutkimuksen kysymyksenasettelu nousee Karmela Liebkindin ja Inga Jasinskaja-Lahden vuonna 1997 tekemästä tutkimuksesta Maahanmuuttajien sopeutuminen pääkaupunkiseudulla. Tutkimuksen mukaan syrjintä ja rasismi ovat merkittävällä tavalla yhteydessä maahanmuuttajien yleiseen psyykkiseen hyvinvointiin. Esimerkiksi nuoret maahanmuuttajat (11-22-vuotiaat) ovat erityisen haavoittuvaisia sekä uuteen maahan tullessaan että siellä ollessaan. Empiirinen aineisto on kerätty teemahaastatteluiden avulla. Tutkimuksen 12 haastateltavaa (6 poikaa ja 6 tyttöä) kävivät haastatteluhetkellä helsinkiläistä lukiota ja olivat 16-19-vuoden ikäisiä. Haastateltavat ovat kotoisin entisen Neuvostoliiton alueelta (5), Somaliasta (4), Vietnamista (1), Hongkongista (1) ja Irakista (1) ja heidän Suomeen tuloikänsä vaihtelee 5-16-vuoden välillä. Haastattelukielioli suomi. Haastatteluaineisto on analysoitu teema-analyysin avulla. Aineistosta etsittiin kohtia, joissa nuoret puhuvat etnisestä identifioitumisestaan suhteessa sekä omaan taustaan että suomalaisuuteen. Lisäksi analyysissa kiinnitettiin huomiota siihen, millaisia näkemyksiä nuoret esittivät rasismista, maahanmuuttopolitiikasta ja ulkomaalaisasenteista ja miten nämä näkemykset ovat yhteneväisiä sekä miten ne eroavat toisistaan. Nuorten etnisyyspohdintoja kuvaavat toisaalta etnisyyden tilannesidonnaisuus ja toisaalta etnisyyden vahva yhteys syntyperään. Etnisyyden saama merkitys vaihtelee sosiaalisten ympäristöjen vaihtuessa. Pohtimalla suomalaisuuden ja suomalaisten tyypillisiä piirteitä nuoret pystyivät helpommin jäsentämään myös omaa kuulumistaan tiettyyn ryhmään. Varsinkin silloin kun suomalaisuus ymmärrettiin kansalaisuudeksi, sitä pidettiin lähes poikkeuksetta syntyperäisten suomalaisten etuoikeutena. Tunnepitoinen ja jopa vereen sidottu etnisyys korostui ennen kaikkea niissä aineiston kohdissa, joissa nuoret pohtivat suomalaiseksi muuttumista ja tulemista. Kukaan haastateltavista ei uskonut muuttuvansa kunnon suomalaiseksi, mikä edellyttäisi toisaalta kokemuksen suomalaisuudesta ja toisaalta hyväksynnän ulkoapäin. Haastateltavat pohtivat vastahakoisesti suomalaisuuden ja suomalaisten negatiivisia piirteitä. Monet mainitsivat asenteellisen ja rasistisen suhtautumisen ulkomaalaisiin, maahanmuuttajiin ja vähemmistöjen edustajiin, kun he puhuivat niistä tilanteista, joissa he häpeävät suomalaisia. Rasismia ei kuitenkaan haluttu yleistää suomalaisten ryhmäominaisuudeksi, vaan sitä pidettiin "poikkeuksellisten" suomalaisten (esimerkiksi skinien) ominaisuutena. Arjen rasistisista selkkauksista puhuttaessa nuoret vähättelivät tapahtumien vakavuutta ja pyrkivät ymmärtämään rasistista käyttäytymistä ja pitivät sitä luonnollisena. Joissakin tapauksissa haastateltavat sanoivat olevansa liian herkkiä rasismille ja päättelivät, etteivät vihamielisyydet alunperin olleet tarkoituksellisia. Rasismin ristiriitaisuutta uhrin kannalta kuvaa tutkimuksessa se, että rasismikokemuksia pidettiin nöyryyttävinä ja hävettävinä, ja sen takia niistä myös vaiettiin kotona. Tutkimuksen perusteella näyttää siltä, että rasismi on ymmärrettävä tapahtumaketjuna eikä yksittäisinä ja erillisinä tapauksina. Tutkimuksessa ilmeni, että nuorten rasismia koskeviin pohdintoihin vaikuttaa se, millä tavoin yhteiskunnan yleinen ja virallinen ilmapiiri reagoi rasismiin. Rasismin ja syrjinnän hiljainen hyväksyminen saattaa vaikuttaa siihen, että myös uhrit vähättelevät rasismikokemuksia. Avainsanat: Nuoret maahanmuuttajat, etnisyys, kulttuuri, rasismi, teemahaastattelu

Naisten seurakunnallisen vaikutusvallan rajoittamisen strategiat pastoraalikirjeissä

Pastoraalikirjeissä eli 1. ja 2. Timoteuskirjeessä ja Tituksen kirjeessä naisten seurakunnallista vaikutusvaltaa rajoitetaan kolmella tavalla: 1. keskittämällä naisten tehtävät kotiin, 2. kieltämällä naisilta opettaminen ja hallitseminen sekä 3. rajoittamalla naiset virkojen ulkopuolelle. Kirjoittaja perustelee kotiin sijoittuvia tehtäviä sillä, että ne ovat 1. oikean opin mukaisia ja 2. ulkopuolisten silmissä oikein. Kreikkalais-roomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa itäisten uskontojen - joihin kristinusko myös kuului - pelättiin vaikuttavan erityisesti naisiin negatiivisesti. Siksi huoli kristinuskon maineesta ei ollut turha. Hyvä maine oli kristityille tärkeää, jotta he saisivat elää rauhassa ja levittää uskontoaan. Kirjoittajan käsitykset ovat samassa linjassa yhteiskunnan lainsäätäjien ja filosofien käsitysten kanssa. Hän painottaa naisten paikaksi ja tehtäväksi samaa paikkaa ja samoja tehtäviä kuin mitä kreikkalais-roomalaisessa yhteiskunnassakin: kotia ja kotiin liittyviä tehtäviä. Kirjoittaja kieltää naiselta miehen opettamisen ja hallitsemisen. Hän perustelee kieltoaan naisen alempiarvoisuudella mieheen nähden. Argumentointi on teologista (kirjoittaja ottaa esimerkiksi luomis- ja syntiinlankeemuskertomuksen). Hänen tulkinnallaan on juuret juutalaisessa tulkinnassa synnin alkuperästä. Kirjoittajan ohjeistukset vastaavat kuitenkin myös kreikkalais-roomalaisia ihanteita ja käytäntöjä. Naisten julkinen puhuminen nähtiin yhteiskunnassa täysin sopimattomana. Käsitykseen voidaan löytää kaksi syytä: 1. Naisia koulutettiin merkittävästi vähemmän kuin miehiä ja siksi naiset eivät opettaneet miehiä 2. Naisten ajateltiin olevan luonnostaan alempiarvoisia miehiin nähden. Näin ollen jos nainen ja mies kuuluivat samaan sosiaaliluokkaan, mies oli aina naisen yläpuolella, eikä nainen saanut opettaa tai hallita miestä vaan päinvastoin. Itsenäiset, varakkaat naiset saattoivat opettaa alempiarvoisia miehiä myös seurakunnassa, kuten yhteiskunnassakin. Näyttää siltä, että kirjoittajan kieltojen ja kehotusten takana on jokin oikea seurakunnallinen tilanne. Pastoraalikirjeiden seurakuntien naiset eivät olleet käyttäytyneet yhteiskunnallisesti hyväksyttyjen standardien mukaisesti. Kolmanneksi kirjoittaja rajoittaa naisten mahdollisuutta toimia seurakunnallisissa viroissa. Kirjoittajan mukaan seurakunta on Jumalan huonekunta, jossa jokaisen jäsenen tulee käyttäytyä oman yhteiskunnallisen statuksensa mukaisesti. Näin ollen kirjoittaja asettaa niille, jotka pyrkivät seurakunnallisiin virkoihin, vaatimukset, jotka vain ylempiin yhteiskuntaluokkiin kuuluvat kristityt voivat täyttää. Viranhaltijoiden tulee olla talonomistajia, koulutettuja ja nauttia kunnioitusta yhteiskunnassa. Merkittävä osa naisista rajautuu näiden kriteerien johdosta virkojen ulkopuolelle. Vain harvat naiset olivat itsenäisiä ja niin varakkaita, että heillä oli oma huonekunta johdettavanaan. Kirjoittaja kuitenkin hyväksyy tällaiset naiset seurakunnallisiinkin tehtäviin: hän mainitsee naisdiakonit ja naisvanhimmat. Kirjoittaja uskoo vakaasti, että kreikkalais-roomalaisen yhteiskunnan hierarkia on sopusoinnussa kristillisen sanoman kanssa. Johtopäätökseni onkin, että seurakunnan jäsenille osoitetut käytösvaatimukset olivat ympäröivän yhteiskunnan sosiaalisen järjestyksen mukaisia. Naisten seurakunnallista vaikutusvaltaa rajoitettiin, koska vapaampi käytös ei olisi ollut yhteiskunnallisesti hyväksyttävää.

Salaisen evankelistan salaliitto : Uusin keskustelu Klemens Aleksandrialaisen kirjeestä Theodorokselle

This thesis is an assessment of the hoax hypothesis, mainly propagated in Stephen C. Carlson's 2005 monograph "The Gospel Hoax: Morton Smith's Invention of Secret Mark", which suggests that professor Morton Smith (1915-1991) forged Clement of Alexandria's letter to Theodore. This letter Smith claimed to have discovered as an 18th century copy in the monastery of Mar Saba in 1958. The Introduction narrates the discovery story of Morton Smith and traces the manuscript's whereabouts up to its apparent disappearance in 1990 following with a brief history of scholarship of the MS and some methodological considerations. Chapters 2 and 3 deal with the arguments for the hoax (mainly by Stephen C. Carlson) and against it (mainly Scott G. Brown). Chapter 2 looks at the MS in its physical aspects, and chapter 3 assesses its subject matter. I conclude that some of the details fit reasonably well with the hoax hypothesis, but on the whole the arguments against it are more persuasive. Especially Carlson's use of QDE-analysis (Questioned Document Examination) has many problems. Comparing the handwriting of Clement's letter to Morton Smith's handwriting I conclude that there are some "repeated differences" between them suggesting that Smith is not the writer of the disputed letter. Clement's letter to Theodore derives most likely from antiquity though the exact details of its character are not discussed in length in this thesis. In Chapter 4 I take a special look at Stephen C. Carlson's arguments which propose that Morton Smith hid clues of his identity to the MS and the materials surrounding it. Comparing these alleged clues to known pseudoscientific works I conclude that Carlson utilizes here methods normally reserved for building a conspiracy theory; thus Carlson's hoax hypothesis has serious methodological flaws in respect to these hidden clues. I construct a model of these questionable methods titled "a boisterous pseudohistorical method" that contains three parts: 1) beginning with a question that from the beginning implicitly contains the answer, 2) considering everything will do as evidence for the conspiracy theory, and 3) abandoning probability and thinking literally that everything is connected. I propose that Stephen C. Carlson utilizes these pseudoscientific methods in his unearthing of Morton Smith's "clues". Chapter 5 looks briefly at the literary genre I title "textual puzzle -thriller". Because even biblical scholarship follows the signs of the times, I propose Carlson's hoax hypothesis has its literary equivalents in fiction in titles like Dan Brown's "Da Vinci Code" and in academic works in titles like John Dart's "Decoding Mark". All of these are interested in solving textual puzzles, even though the methodological choices are not acceptable for scholarship. Thus the hoax hypothesis as a whole is alternatively either unpersuasive or plain bad science.

Kummisetien katolinen kirkko : Kummisetä-trilogian ja Sopranos-televisiosarjan välittämä kuva roomalaiskatolisesta kirkosta

Tässä tutkielmassa tutkin millaisen kuvan Francis Ford Coppolan ohjaamat kolme Kummisetä-elokuvaa ja David Chasen luoman Sopranos-televisiosarjan kaksi ensimmäistä tuotantokautta antavat roomalaiskatolisesta kirkosta ja erityisesti Amerikassa toimivasta roomalaiskatolisesta kirkosta. Kummisetä-elokuvat valmistuivat vuosina 1972, 1974 ja 1990, Sopranos-sarjan kaksi ensimmäistä tuotantokautta taas esitettiin HBO-kanavalla ensimmäisen kerran vuosina 1999 ja 2000. Lähteet kattavat Amerikan katolisen kirkon historian 1900-luvun alusta aina 2000-luvun alkuun asti. Pyrin vastaamaan tutkielmassani siihen, millaisena lähteet kuvaavat katolisen ja onko kuvaukselle löydettävissä jotain syitä. Kummisetä-elokuvien kohdalla on paradoksaalista se, että ne kaikki kuvaavat menneisyyden eivätkä tekohetkensä tapahtumia, mikä mahdollisesti näkyy myös niiden tavassa kuvata katolista kirkkoa. Vaikuttaisi siltä, että varsinkin kahden ensimmäisen Kummisetä-elokuvan tapa kuvata Amerikan katolista kirkkoa pohjautuu pitkälti elokuvan tekohetken tunnelmiin. Elokuvien ohjaaja Francis Ford Coppola on myöntänyt käyttäneensä Kummisetä-elokuvien päähenkilöinä olevaa Corleone-perhettä Amerikan vertauskuvana. Elokuvien yksi kattava teema on eräänlainen maallistumiskehitys, jossa vanhan polven edustajan, don Vito Corleonen, arvot syrjäytyvät ja tilalle nousee uusi johtajapolvi Viton nuorimman pojan don Michael Corleonen hahmossa. Michael Corleone edustaa huomattavasti armottomampaa polvea kuin Vito eikä uskonto ja katolinen kirkko näy hänen elämässään juuri lainkaan. Michaelin kyyninen ja kylmäkin hahmo on mitä todennäköisemmin vertauskuva elokuvien tekohetken yleisistä tunnelmia, jolloin Watergate-skandaali kansallisella tasolla ja Vatikaanin II konsiili ja paavin kiertokirje Humanae Vitae muokkasivat rajusti perinteisen katolisuuden ja amerikkalaisuuden identiteettiä. Kolmas Kummisetä-elokuva käsittelee lähes kokonaan paavi Johannes Paavali I:n lyhyeksi jäänyttä paaviuskautta vuodelta 1978 osittain fiktioin keinoin. Elokuvan yhtäläisyydet rikoskirjailija David Yallopin menestyskirjaan In Gods Name. An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I, jossa kirjailija esittää paavin tulleen kuurian virkamiesten ja mafiosoiden murhaamaksi, ovat selkeät. Kirkosta luodaan kuva toisaalta armottomona valtakoneistona, mutta toisaalta myös hengellisenä yhteisönä, josta katuvan ihmisen on mahdollisuus löytää apua. Sopranos-televisiosarja jatkaa kahdella ensimmäisellä tuotantokaudellaan saman maallistumiskehityksen kulkua kuin kaksi ensimmäistä Kummisetä-elokuvaakin. Päähenkilö Tony Soprano perheineen on lähes täysin irrallaan katolisesta perinteestä eivätkä he enää tunne sen oppejakaan kunnolla. Silti he mieltävät itsensä katolilaisiksi. Tämä vastaa joiltain osin tutkimustuloksia todellisista amerikkalaisista katolilaisista. Kaiken kaikkiaan Kummisetä-elokuvatrilogia ja Sopranos-televisiosarja antavat katolisesta kirkosta hyvin monipuolisen ja joissain asioissa totuudenmukaisenkin kuvan, joskin tekijöiden oma henkilöhistoria ja ajan skandaalit ovat väistämättä värittäneet kirkkokuvausta. Siten ne muodostavat värikkään läpileikkauksen Amerikan katolisen kirkon kehityksestä amerikanitalialaisessa yhteisössä 1900-luvun alusta 2000-luvun alkuun.