Sianlihan tuotantoon vaikuttavat tekijät vuosina 1995-2006

Ennen Suomen EU-jäsenyyttä kansallisen maatalouspolitiikan yksi päätavoitteista oli elintarvikeomavaraisuus. Tavoitteen saavuttamiseksi Suomessa oli maatalouspolitiikan osalta käytössä hintatukijärjestelmä, jossa yksi pääasiallisista tuotannon ohjauskeinoista oli tavoitehinnat, joilla valtiovalta pyrki vaikuttamaan tuottajahintoihin. Tavoitehintojen avulla tuottajat pystyivät ennakoimaan tulevan hintatason ja näin siirtämään tuotantoaan taloudellisesti kannattavimpaan suuntaan. Tästä oli kuitenkin seurauksena kotimaisen elintarvikeomavaraisuuden ylittyminen varsinkin eläinkunnan tuotteiden osalta. Vuonna 1994 lihatuotteiden yhteenlaskettu omavaisuus oli 110 prosenttia. Sianlihan osalta omavaisuus oli hieman tätä suurempi, 114 prosenttia. Suomen liityttyä EU:n jäsenmaaksi vuonna 1995 tavoitehinnoista luovuttiin ja samalla tuottajahinnat putosivat. Korvaukseksi tuottajahintojen pudotuksesta tuottajille alettiin maksaa suoria tulotukia. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli selvittää mitkä tekijät vaikuttivat sianlihan tuotantopäätöksiin maatalouden muuttuneessa toimintaympäristössä ja miten yhteisen maatalouspolitiikan uudistukset vaikuttivat sianlihan tarjontaan. Tutkimuksen tarkasteluaikavälinä olivat vuodet 1995 2006. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli myös tuotantoon vaikuttavien tekijöiden pohjalta ennustaa sianlihan tuotantoa vuoteen 2013. Tuotantopäätöksiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä tarkasteltiin regressio-analyysin avulla, jotta saataisiin selville sianlihan tuotantoa parhaiten selittävät tekijät. Tutkimuksen aikasarja-aineisto poimittiin maa- ja metsätalousministeriön tietopalvelukeskuksen (Tike:n) ja tilastokeskuksen julkaisemista ja ylläpitämistä tilastoista. Sianlihan tuotantoon vaikuttavien tekijöiden ennusteisiin tutkimuksessa käytettiin sekä kansainvälisten että kotimaisten taloustutkimuslaitosten ja organisaatioiden ennusteita. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen viitekehys muodostui yrityksen teoriasta, tarjontateoriasta ja aikavälin merkityksestä tarjontaan. Tuotantomallin estimoinnin tuloksena sianlihan tuotantoon vaikuttivat vuosien 1996 2006 aikana sianlihan tuotannon tuottavuuden kasvua kuvaava teknologiamuuttuja, neljällä neljänneksellä viivästetty sianlihan tuottajahinta ja tuotantotuet yhteenlaskettuna, kolmella neljänneksellä viivästetty vehnän tuottajahinta, kahdeksalla neljänneksellä viivästetty sianlihan tuotanto, kahdella neljänneksellä viivästetty porsaan välityshinta ja kuudella neljänneksellä viivästetty investointituet. Sianlihan tuotantomallin selitysasteeksi saatiin 0,91. Estimoidulla tuotantomallilla ennustettiin sianlihan tuotannon kehitystä vuosina 2007 2013. Perusskenaariossa tuotannon ennustettiin muuttuvan vuodesta 2007 eteenpäin samalla tavalla kuin vuosina 1995 2006 keskimäärin. Perusskenaarion lisäksi tuotantomallilla simuloitiin tuotantotukien ja investointitukien dekoplauksen vaikutusta sianlihan tuotantoon. Tuotantotukien dekoplauksen myötä sianlihan tuotanto laskisi 177 milj. kiloon vuonna 2009, mutta nousisi 193 milj. kiloon vuonna 2013. Investointitukien dekoplauksen myötä tuotanto laskisi 176 milj. kiloon vuonna 2009 ja nousisi vuoteen 2013 mennessä 191 milj. kiloon. Suurimman pudotuksen aiheutti kuitenkin vehnän tuottajahinnan nousu vuosien 2006 ja 2007 aikana, jonka seurauksena sianlihan tuotanto laskisi jo vuonna 2008 180 milj. kiloon.

Tukien tuotannosta irrottamisen vaikutukset viljan, naudanlihan ja sianlihan tarjontaan Suomessa

This research discusses decoupling CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) support and impacts which may occur on grain cultivation area and supply of beef and pork in Finland. The study presents the definitions and studies on decoupled agricultural subsidies, the development of supply of grain, beef and pork in Finland and changes in leading factors affecting supply between 1970 and 2005. Decoupling agricultural subsidies means that the linkage between subsidies and production levels is disconnected; subsidies do not affect the amount produced. The hypothesis is that decoupling will decrease the amounts produced in agriculture substantially. In the supply research, the econometric models which represent supply of agricultural products are estimated based on the data of prices and amounts produced. With estimated supply models, the impacts of changes in prices and public policies, can be forecasted according to supply of agricultural products. In this study, three regression models describing combined cultivation areas of rye, wheat, oats and barley, and the supply of beef and pork are estimated. Grain cultivation area and supply of beef are estimated based on data from 1970 to 2005 and supply of pork on data from 1995 to 2005. The dependencies in the model are postulated to be linear. The explanatory variables in the grain model were average return per hectare, agricultural subsidies, grain cultivation area in the previous year and the cost of fertilization. The explanatory variables in the beef model were the total return from markets and subsidies and the amount of beef production in the previous year. In the pork model the explanatory variables were the total return, the price of piglet, investment subsidies, trend of increasing productivity and the dummy variable of the last quarter of the year. The R-squared of model of grain cultivation area was 0,81, the model of beef supply 0,77 and the model of pork supply 0,82. Development of grain cultivation area and supply of beef and pork was estimated for 2006 - 2013 with this regression model. In the basic scenario, development of explanatory variables in 2006 - 2013 was postulated to be the same as they used to be in average in 1995 - 2005. After the basic scenario the impacts of decoupling CAP subsidies and domestic subsidies on cultivation area and supply were simulated. According to the results of the decoupling CAP subsidies scenario, grain cultivation area decreases from 1,12 million hectares in 2005 to 1,0 million hectares in 2013 and supply of beef from 88,8 million kilos in 2005 to 67,7 million kilos in 2013. Decoupling domestic and investment subsidies will decrease the supply of pork from 194 million kilos in 2005 to 187 million kilos in 2006. By 2013 the supply of pork grows into 203 million kilos.

Avoimet julkaisuarkistot ja niiden tekniikka

Open Access -liike pyrkii vapauttamaan tieteellisen tiedon kaupallisuuden rajoitteista edesauttamalla artikkeleiden rinnakkaisversioiden avointa ja esteetöntä verkkotallennusta. Sen mahdollistamiseksi verkkoon perustetaan julkaisuarkistoja, joiden toiminta-ajatuksena on säilöä taustayhteisönsä tieteellinen tuotanto avoimesti ja keskitetysti yhteen paikkaan. Avoimen lähdekoodin arkistosovellukset jakavat sisältönsä OAI-protokollan avulla ja muodostavat näin globaalin virtuaalisen tietoverkon. Suurten tietomäärien käsittelyssä on huomioitava erityisesti kuvailutiedon rooli tehokkaiden hakujen toteuttamisessa sekä tiedon yksilöiminen verkossa erilaisten pysyvien tunnisteiden, kuten Handle:n tai URN:n avulla. Tieteellisen tiedon avoimella saatavuudella on merkittävä vaikutus myös oppimisen näkökulmasta. Julkaisuarkistot tarjoavat oppimateriaalin lisäksi uusia mahdollisuuksia julkaisukanavan ja oppimisymp äristön integroimiseen. Työssä esitellään avoimen saatavuuden keskeisiä teemoja sekä sen käytännön toteutusta varten kehitettyjä teknisiä ratkaisuja. Näiden pohjalta toteutetaan Meilahden kampuksen avoin julkaisuarkisto. Työssä pohditaan myös julkaisuarkistojen soveltuvuutta oppimisprosessin tukemiseen tutkivan- ja sulautuvan oppimisen viitekehyksessä. ACM Computing Classification System (CCS): H.3 [INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL], H.3.7 [Digital Libraries], H.3.3 [Information Search and Retrieval], H.3.5 [Online Information Services], K.3 [COMPUTERS AND EDUCATION], K.3.1 [Computer Uses in Education]

Vedestä vai Hengestä? : Uuras Saarnivaaran kasteteologia

Of water or the Spirit? Uuras Saarnivaara s theology of baptism The aim of the study was to investigate PhD and ThD Uuras Saarnivaara s views on baptism as well as their possible changes and the reasons for them. Dr Saarnivaara said himself that he searched for the truth about the relationship between baptism and faith for decades, and had faltered in his views. The method of this research is systematic analysis. A close study of the source material shows that Dr Saarnivaara s views on baptism have most likely changed several times. Therefore, special attention was paid to the time periods defined by when his literary works were published. This resulted in revealing the different perspectives he had on baptism. The fact that Dr Saarnivaara worked on two continents Europe and North America added a challenge to the research process. At the beginning of the research, I described Dr Saarnivaara s phases of life and mapped out his vast literary production as well as presented his theological basis. Saarnivaara s theological view on the means of grace and their interrelation in the church was influenced by the Laestadian movement, which caused him to adopt the view that the Holy Spirit does not dwell in the means of grace, but in the believers. Thus the real presence of Christ in the means of grace is denied. God s word is divided into Biblical revelation and proclamation by believers through the means of grace. Also, the sacraments are overshadowed by the preached word. Because grace is received through the word of the gospel preached publicly or privately by a believer, the preacher s status gains importance at the expense of the actual means of grace. Saarnivaara was intrigued by the content of baptism from the time he was a student until the end of his life. As a young theologian, he would adopt the opinions of his teachers as well as the view of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, which at the time was dominated by the pietistic movement and the teachings of J. T. Beck. After Saarnivaara had converted to the Laestadian movement, moved to the United States and started his Luther research, he adopted a view on baptism which was to a great extent in accordance with Luther and the Lutheran Symbolical Books. Saarnivaara considered his former views on baptism unbiblical and publicly apologised for them. In the 1950s, after starting his ministry within the Finnish neopietistic movements, Saarnivaara adopted a Laestadian-neopietistic doctrine of baptism. During his Beckian-pietistic era, Saarnivaara based his baptism theology on the event of the disciples of Jesus being baptised by John the Baptist, the revival of Samaria in the Book of Acts and the conversion of Cornelius and his family, all cases where the receiving of the Holy Spirit and the baptism were two separate events in time. In order to defend the theological unity of the Bible, Saarnivaara had to interpret Jesus teachings on baptism in the Gospels and the teachings of the Apostles in the New Testament letters from a viewpoint based on the three events mentioned above. During his Beckian-pietistic era, the abovementioned basic hermeneutic choice caused Saarnivaara to separate baptism by water and baptism by the Holy Spirit in his salvation theology. Simultaneously, the faith of a small child is denied, and rebirth is divided into two parts, the objective and the subjective, the latter being moved from the moment of baptism to a possible spiritual break-through at an age when the person possesses a more mature understanding. During his Laestadian-Lutheran era, Saarnivaara s theology of baptism was biblically consistent and the same for all people regardless of the person s age. Small children receive faith in baptism through the presence of Christ. The task of other people s faith is limited to the act of bringing the child to the baptism so that the child may receive his/her own faith from Christ and be born again as a child of God. The doctrine of baptism during Saarnivaara s Laestadian-neopietistic era represents in many aspects the emphases he presented during his first era, although they were now partly more radical. Baptism offers grace; it is not a means of grace. Justification, rebirth and salvation would take place later on when a person had reached an age with a more mature understanding through the word of God. A small child cannot be born again in baptism because being born again requires personal faith, which is received through hearing and understanding the law and the gospel. Saarnivaara s views on baptism during his first and third era are, unlike during his second era, quite controversial. The question of the salvation of a small child goes unanswered, or it is even denied. The central question during both eras is the demand of conversion and personal faith at a mature age. The background for this demand is in Saarnivaara s anthropology, which accentuates man s relationship to God as an intellectual and mental matter requiring understanding, and which needs no material instruments. The two first theological eras regarding Saarnivaara s doctrine of baptism lasted around ten years. The third era lasted over 40 years until his death.

Ethics in a Technological World : Framing the Questions and Three Approaches

This study addresses the following question: How to think about ethics in a technological world? The question is treated first thematically by framing central issues in the relationship between ethics and technology. This relationship has three distinct facets: i) technological advance poses new challenges for ethics, ii) traditional ethics may become poorly applicable in a technologically transformed world, and iii) the progress in science and technology has altered the concept of rationality in ways that undermine ethical thinking itself. The thematic treatment is followed by the description and analysis of three approaches to the questions framed. First, Hans Jonas s thinking on the ontology of life and the imperative of responsibility is studied. In Jonas s analysis modern culture is found to be nihilistic because it is unable to understand organic life, to find meaning in reality, and to justify morals. At the root of nihilism Jonas finds dualism, the traditional Western way of seeing consciousness as radically separate from the material world. Jonas attempts to create a metaphysical grounding for an ethic that would take the technologically increased human powers into account and make the responsibility for future generations meaningful and justified. The second approach is Albert Borgmann s philosophy of technology that mainly assesses the ways in which technological development has affected everyday life. Borgmann admits that modern technology has liberated humans from toil, disease, danger, and sickness. Furthermore, liberal democracy, possibilities for self-realization, and many of the freedoms we now enjoy would not be possible on a large scale without technology. Borgmann, however, argues that modern technology in itself does not provide a whole and meaningful life. In fact, technological conditions are often detrimental to the good life. Integrity in life, according to him, is to be sought among things and practices that evade technoscientific objectification and commodification. Larry Hickman s Deweyan philosophy of technology is the third approach under scrutiny. Central in Hickman s thinking is a broad definition of technology that is nearly equal to Deweyan inquiry. Inquiry refers to the reflective and experiential way humans adapt to their environment by modifying their habits and beliefs. In Hickman s work, technology consists of all kinds of activities that through experimentation and/or reflection aim at improving human techniques and habits. Thus, in addition to research and development, many arts and political reforms are technological for Hickman. He argues for recasting such distinctions as fact/value, poiesis/praxis/theoria, and individual/society. Finally, Hickman does not admit a categorical difference between ethics and technology: moral values and norms need to be submitted to experiential inquiry as well as all the other notions. This study mainly argues for an interdisciplinary approach to the ethics of technology. This approach should make use of the potentialities of the research traditions in applied ethics, the philosophy of technology, and the social studies on science and technology and attempt to overcome their limitations. This study also advocates an endorsement of mid-level ethics that concentrate on the practices, institutions, and policies of temporal human life. Mid-level describes the realm between the instantaneous and individualistic micro-level and the universal and global macro level.

Kannustaminen ja moraali : Kannustamisen idea suomalaisessa yhteiskuntapolitiikassa 1990-luvulta alkaen

Even though the concept of incentive has become very popular in Finnish welfare politics since the economic crisis of the 1990s, the content of this concept is not clear. Fundamentally, it is a matter of controlling the behaviour of individuals to accord with the authorities' objectives and interests in gaining cooperative benefits. As early as in Plato's Republic, citizens were encouraged to use their abilities and skills in a way most beneficial to the society. Similarly, in today's welfare society citizens are urged to produce common goods and distribute welfare to enable a better life for all through cooperation. The fundamental question is to what extent society can shape individuals' preferences with incentives, and encourage them without external coercion to choose actions beneficial for both the society and the individuals themselves. The objective of the incentive institution is to gain cooperative benefits, but there are different views on how it should be implemented. For example, the incentive system in the Finnish welfare society includes several economic and social conceptions which adjust the distribution of welfare. From an economic perspective, the objective of the incentive system is economic efficiency, while from a social perspective it is the securing of social rights and citizens' equality. The market mechanism, for example, can at best lead to economically efficient activity, but it might sacrifice fairness and equality. In this research, the idea of activation policy expands to cover normative and social incentives, in addition to the economic factors affecting human choice and social actions. Desirable co-living and meaningful cooperation have some prerequisites. We need the expanded idea of activation to study them, and to maintain them in society. The themes discussed in all the ten chapters aim at evaluating the preconditions of a just society. This study provides tools to examine the changes in the welfare state, also from the viewpoint of normative ethics. This offers a morally and conceptually wider perspective than a normative viewpoint of economics alone. In terms of the values of our welfare society, it makes a difference how the relationship between the legalities of economics and citizens' well-being is understood. The research asks whether economic benefits to the society should be allowed to supersede the principles of human dignity Key words:incentives, activation policy, morality, social philosophy, social justice, policy paradigm

Dental Service Utilization, Dental Health Production and Equity in Dental Care: the Finnish Experience

This thesis is grounded on four articles. Article I generally examines the factors affecting dental service utilization. Article II studies the factors associated with sector-specific utilization among young adults entitled to age-based subsidized dental care. Article III explores the determinants of dental ill-health as measured by the occurrence of caries and the relationship between dental ill-health and dental care use. Article IV measures and explains income-related inequality in utilization. Data employed were from the 1996 Finnish Health Care Survey (I, II, IV) and the 1997 follow-up study included in the longitudinal study of the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort (III). Utilization is considered as a multi-stage decision-making process and measured as the number of visits to the dentist. Modified count data models and concentration and horizontal equity indices were applied. Dentist s recall appeared very efficient at stimulating individuals to seek care. Dental pain, recall, and the low number of missing teeth positively affected utilization. Public subvention for dental care did not seem to statistically increase utilization. Among young adults, a perception of insufficient public service availability and recall were positively associated with the choice of a private dentist, whereas income and dentist density were positively associated with the number of visits to private dentists. Among cohort females, factors increasing caries were body mass index and intake of alcohol, sugar, and soft drinks and those reducing caries were birth weight and adolescent school achievement. Among cohort males, caries was positively related to the metropolitan residence and negatively related to healthy diet and education. Smoking increased caries, whereas regular teeth brushing, regular dental attendance and dental care use decreased caries. We found equity in young adults utilization but pro-rich inequity in the total number of visits to all dentists and in the probability of visiting a dentist for the whole sample. We observed inequity in the total number of visits to the dentist and in the probability of visiting a dentist, being pro-poor for public care but pro-rich for private care. The findings suggest that to enhance equal access to and use of dental care across population and income groups, attention should focus on supply factors and incentives to encourage people to contact dentists more often. Lowering co-payments and service fees and improving public availability would likely increase service use in both sectors. To attain favorable oral health, appropriate policies aimed at improving dental health education and reducing the detrimental effects of common risk factors on dental health should be strengthened. Providing equal access with respect to need for all people ought to take account of the segmentation of the service system, with its two parallel delivery systems and different supplier incentives to patients and dentists.

Essays on Finnish Economic Growth and Productivity, 1860-2005

This study examines Finnish economic growth. The key driver of economic growth was productivity. And the major engine of productivity growth was technology, especially the general purpose technologies (GPTs) electricity and ICT. A new GPT builds on previous knowledge, yet often in an uncertain, punctuated, fashion. Economic history, as well as the Finnish data analyzed in this study, teaches that growth is not a smooth process but is subject to episodes of sharp acceleration and deceleration which are associated with the arrival, diffusion and exhaustion of new general purpose technologies. These are technologies that affect the whole economy by transforming both household life and the ways in which firms conduct business. The findings of previous research, that Finnish economic growth exhibited late industrialisation and significant structural changes were corroborated by this study. Yet, it was not solely a story of manufacturing and structural change was more the effect of than the cause for economic growth. We offered an empirical resolution to the Artto-Pohjola paradox as we showed that a high rate of return on capital was combined with low capital productivity growth. This result is important in understanding Finnish economic growth 1975-90. The main contribution of this thesis was the growth accounting results on the impact of ICT on growth and productivity, as well as the comparison of electricity and ICT. It was shown that ICT s contribution to GDP growth was almost twice as large as electricity s contribution over comparable periods of time. Finland has thus been far more successful as an ICT producer than a producer of electricity. Unfortunately in the use of ICT the results were still more modest than for electricity. During the end of the period considered in this thesis, Finland switched from resource-based to ICT-based growth. However, given the large dependency on the ICT-producing sector, the ongoing outsourcing of ICT production to low wage countries provides a threat to productivity performance in the future. For a developed country only change is constant and history teaches us that it is likely that Finland is obliged to reorganize its economy once again in the digital era.

Environmental effects of thermal and radioactive discharges from nuclear power plants in the boreal brackish-water conditions of the northern Baltic Sea

During recent decades, thermal and radioactive discharges from nuclear power plants into the aquatic environment have become the subject of lively debate as an ecological concern. The target of this thesis was to summarize the large quantity of results obtained in extensive monitoring programmes and studies carried out in recipient sea areas off the Finnish nuclear power plants at Loviisa and Olkiluoto during more than four decades. The Loviisa NPP is located on the coast of the Gulf of Finland and Olkiluoto NPP on that of the Bothnian Sea. The state of the Gulf of Finland is clearly more eutrophic; the nutrient concentrations in the surface water are about 1½ 2 times higher at Loviisa than at Olkiluoto, and the total phosphorus concentrations still increased in both areas (even doubled at Loviisa) between the early 1970s and 2000. Thus, it is a challenge to distinguish the local effects of thermal discharges from the general eutrophication process of the Gulf of Finland. The salinity is generally low in the brackish-water conditions of the northern Baltic Sea, being however about 1 higher at Olkiluoto than at Loviisa (the salinity of surface water varying at the latter from near to 0 in early spring to 4 6 in late autumn). Thus, many marine and fresh-water organisms live in the Loviisa area close to their limit of existence, which makes the biota sensitive to any additional stress. The characteristics of the discharge areas of the two sites differ from each other in many respects: the discharge area at Loviisa is a semi-enclosed bay in the inner archipelago, where the exchange of water is limited, while the discharge area at Olkiluoto is more open, and the exchange of water with the open Bothnian Sea is more effective. The effects of the cooling water discharged from the power plants on the temperatures in the sea were most obvious in winter. The formation of a permanent ice cover in the discharge areas has been delayed in early winter, and the break-up of the ice occurs earlier in spring. The prolonging of the growing season and the disturbance of the overwintering time, in conditions where the biota has adjusted to a distinct rest period in winter, have been the most significant biological effects of the thermal pollution. The soft-bottom macrofauna at Loviisa has deteriorated to the point of almost total extinction at many sampling stations during the past 40 years. A similar decline has been reported for the whole eastern Gulf of Finland. However, the local eutrophication process seems to have contributed into the decline of the zoobenthos in the discharge area at Loviisa. Thermal discharges have increased the production of organic matter, which again has led to more organic bottom deposits. These have in turn increased the tendency of the isolated deeps to a depletion of oxygen, and this has further caused strong remobilization of phosphorus from the bottom sediments. Phytoplankton primary production and primary production capacity doubled in the whole area between the late 1960s and the late 1990s, but started to decrease a little at the beginning of this century. The focus of the production shifted from spring to mid- and late summer. The general rise in the level of primary production was mainly due to the increase in nutrient concentrations over the whole Gulf of Finland, but the thermal discharge contributed to a stronger increase of production in the discharge area compared to that in the intake area. The eutrophication of littoral vegetation in the discharge area has been the most obvious, unambiguous and significant biological effect of the heated water. Myriophyllum spicatum, Potamogeton perfoliatus and Potamogeton pectinatus, and vigorous growths of numerous filamentous algae as their epiphytes have strongly increased in the vicinity of the cooling water outlet, where they have formed dense populations in the littoral zone in late summer. However, the strongest increase of phytobenthos has extended only to a distance of about 1 km from the outlet, i.e., the changes in vegetation have been largest in those areas that remain ice-free in winter. Similar trends were also discernible at Olkiluoto, but to a clearly smaller extent, which was due to the definitely weaker level of background eutrophy and nutrient concentrations in the Bothnian Sea, and the differing local hydrographical and biological factors prevailing in the Olkiluoto area. The level of primary production has also increased at Olkiluoto, but has remained at a clearly lower level than at Loviisa. In spite of the analogous changes observed in the macrozoobenthos, the benthic fauna has remained strong and diversified in the Olkiluoto area. Small amounts of local discharge nuclides were regularly detected in environmental samples taken from the discharge areas: tritium in seawater samples, and activation products, such as 60Co, 58Co, 54Mn, 110mAg, 51Cr, in suspended particulate matter, bottom sediments and in several indicator organisms (e.g., periphyton and Fucus vesiculosus) that effectively accumulate radioactive substances from the medium. The tritium discharges and the consequent detection frequency and concentrations of tritium in seawater were higher at Loviisa, but the concentrations of the activation products were higher at Olkiluoto, where traces of local discharge nuclides were also observed over a clearly wider area, due to the better exchange of water than at Loviisa, where local discharge nuclides were only detected outside Hästholmsfjärden Bay quite rarely and in smaller amounts. At the farthest, an insignificant trace amount (0.2 Bq kg-1 d.w.) of 60Co originating from Olkiluoto was detected in Fucus at a distance of 137 km from the power plant. Discharge nuclides from the local nuclear power plants were almost exclusively detected at the lower trophic levels of the ecosystems. Traces of local discharge nuclides were very seldom detected in fish, and even then only in very low quantities. As a consequence of the reduced discharges, the concentrations of local discharge nuclides in the environment have decreased noticeably in recent years at both Loviisa and Olkiluoto. Although the concentrations in environmental samples, and above all, the discharge data, are presented as seemingly large numbers, the radiation doses caused by them to the population and to the biota are very low, practically insignificant. The effects of the thermal discharges have been more significant, at least to the wildlife in the discharge areas of the cooling water, although the area of impact has been relatively small. The results show that the nutrient level and the exchange of water in the discharge area of a nuclear power plant are of crucial importance.

Innate immunity and its control in the pathogenesis of inflammatory rheumatic diseases

The pathogenesis of inflammatory rheumatic diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and spondyloarthropathies (SpAs) such as reactive arthritis (ReA), is incompletely understood. ReA is a sterile joint inflammation, which may follow a distal infection caused by Gram-negative bacteria that have lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in their outer membrane. The functions of innate immunity that may affect the pathogenesis, prognosis and treatment of these diseases were studied in this thesis. When compared with healthy controls, whole blood monocytes of healthy subjects with previous ReA showed enhanced capacity to produce TNF, an essential proinflammatory cytokine, in response to adherent conditions (mimicking vascular endothelium made adherent by inflammatory signals) and non-specific protein kinase C stimulation. Also, blood neutrophils of these subjects showed high levels of CD11b, an important adhesion molecule, in response to adherence or LPS. Thus, high responsiveness of monocytes and neutrophils when encountering inflammatory stimuli may play a role in the pathogenesis of ReA. The results also suggested that the known risk allele for SpAs, HLA-B27, may be an additive contributor to the observed differences. The promoter polymorphisms TNF 308A and CD14 (gene for an LPS receptor component) 159T were found not to increase the risk of acute arthritis. However, all female patients who developed chronic SpA had 159T and none of them had 308A, possibly reflecting an interplay between hormonal and inflammatory signals in the development of chronic SpA. Among subjects with early RA, those having the polymorphic TLR4 +896G allele (causing the Asp299Gly change in TLR4, another component of LPS receptor) required a combination of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs to achieve remission. It is known that rapid treatment response is essential in order to maintain the patients work ability. Hence, +896G might be a candidate marker for identifying the patients who need combination treatment. The production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which strongly promotes vascular permeability and angiogenesis that takes place e.g. early in rheumatic joints, was induced by LPS and inhibited by interferon (IFN)-alpha in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. These long-living cells might provide a source of VEGF when stimulated by LPS and migrating to inflamed joints, and the effect of IFN-alpha may contribute to the clinical efficacy of this cytokine in inhibiting joint inflammation.

Microbe-induced Innate Immune Responses in Human Dendritic Cells

Two types of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), function at the interface of innate and adaptive immunity. Through recognition of conserved microbial patterns, they are able to detect the invading pathogens. This leads to activation of signal transduction pathways that in turn induce gene expression of various molecules required for immune responses and eventually pathogen clearance. Cytokines are among the genes induced upon detection of microbes. They play an important role in regulating host immune responses during microbial infection. Chemotactic cytokines, chemokines, are involved in migratory events of immune cells. Cytokines also promote the differentiation of distinct T cell responses. Because of the multiple roles of cytokines in the immune system, the cytokine network needs to be tightly regulated. In this work, the induction of innate immune responses was studied using human primary macrophages or DCs as cell models. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium served as a model for an intracellular bacterium, whereas Sendai virus was used in virus experiments. The starting point of this study was that DCs of mouse origin had recently been characterized as host cells for Salmonella. However, only little was known about the immune responses initiated in Salmonella-infected human DCs. Thus, cellular responses of macrophages and DCs, in particular the pattern of cytokine production, to Salmonella infection were compared. Salmonella-induced macrophages and DCs were found to produce multiple cytokines including interferon (IFN) -gamma, which is conventionally produced by T and natural killer (NK) cells. Both macrophages and DCs also promoted the intracellular survival of the bacterium. Phenotypic maturation of DCs as characterized by upregulation of costimulatory and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules, and production of CCL19 chemokine, were also detected upon infection with Salmonella. Another focus of this PhD work was to unravel the regulatory events controlling the expression of cytokine genes encoding for CCL19 and type III IFNs, which are central to DC biology. We found that the promoters of CCL19 and type III IFNs contain similar regulatory elements that bind nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) and interferon regulatory factors (IRFs), which could mediate transcriptional activation of the genes. The regulation of type III IFNs in virus infection resembled that of type I IFNs a cytokine class traditionally regarded as antiviral. The induction of type I and type III IFNs was also observed in response to bacterial infection. Taken together, this work identifies new details about the interaction of Salmonella with its phagocytic host cells of human origin. In addition, studies provide information on the regulatory events controlling the expression of CCL19 and the most recently identified IFN family genes, type III IFN genes.

Theoretical Studies on Coupled Electron and Proton Transfer in Cytochrome c Oxidase

The complexity of life is based on an effective energy transduction machinery, which has evolved during the last 3.5 billion years. In aerobic life, the utilization of the high oxidizing potential of molecular oxygen powers this machinery. Oxygen is safely reduced by a membrane bound enzyme, cytochrome c oxidase (CcO), to produce an electrochemical proton gradient over the mitochondrial or bacterial membrane. This gradient is used for energy-requiring reactions such as synthesis of ATP by F0F1-ATPase and active transport. In this thesis, the molecular mechanism by which CcO couples the oxygen reduction chemistry to proton-pumping has been studied by theoretical computer simulations. By building both classical and quantum mechanical model systems based on the X-ray structure of CcO from Bos taurus, the dynamics and energetics of the system were studied in different intermediate states of the enzyme. As a result of this work, a mechanism was suggested by which CcO can prevent protons from leaking backwards in proton-pumping. The use and activation of two proton conducting channels were also enlightened together with a mechanism by which CcO sorts the chemical protons from pumped protons. The latter problem is referred to as the gating mechanism of CcO, and has remained a challenge in the bioenergetics field for more than three decades. Furthermore, a new method for deriving charge parameters for classical simulations of complex metalloenzymes was developed.

Substance flow analysis in Finland : Four case studies on N and P flows

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential elements for all living organisms. However, in excess, they contribute to several environmental problems such as aquatic and terrestrial eutrophication. Globally, human action has multiplied the volume of N and P cycling since the onset of industrialization. The multiplication is a result of intensified agriculture, increased energy consumption and population growth. Industrial ecology (IE) is a discipline, in which human interaction with the ecosystems is investigated using a systems analytical approach. The main idea behind IE is that industrial systems resemble ecosystems, and, like them, industrial systems can then be described using material, energy and information flows and stocks. Industrial systems are dependent on the resources provided by the biosphere, and these two cannot be separated from each other. When studying substance flows, the aims of the research from the viewpoint of IE can be, for instance, to elucidate the ways how the cycles of a certain substance could be more closed and how the flows of a certain substance could be decreased per unit of production (= dematerialization). In Finland, N and P are studied widely in different ecosystems and environmental emissions. A holistic picture comparing different societal systems is, however, lacking. In this thesis, flows of N and P were examined in Finland using substance flow analysis (SFA) in the following four subsystems: I) forest industry and use of wood fuels, II) food production and consumption, III) energy, and IV) municipal waste. A detailed analysis at the end of the 1990s was performed. Furthermore, historical development of the N and P flows was investigated in the energy system (III) and the municipal waste system (IV). The main research sources were official statistics, literature, monitoring data, and expert knowledge. The aim was to identify and quantify the main flows of N and P in Finland in the four subsystems studied. Furthermore, the aim was to elucidate whether the nutrient systems are cyclic or linear, and to identify how these systems could be more efficient in the use and cycling of N and P. A final aim was to discuss how this type of an analysis can be used to support decision-making on environmental problems and solutions. Of the four subsystems, the food production and consumption system and the energy system created the largest N flows in Finland. For the creation of P flows, the food production and consumption system (Paper II) was clearly the largest, followed by the forest industry and use of wood fuels and the energy system. The contribution of Finland to N and P flows on a global scale is low, but when compared on a per capita basis, we are one of the largest producers of these flows, with relatively high energy and meat consumption being the main reasons. Analysis revealed the openness of all four systems. The openness is due to the high degree of internationality of the Finnish markets, the large-scale use of synthetic fertilizers and energy resources and the low recycling rate of many waste fractions. Reduction in the use of fuels and synthetic fertilizers, reorganization of the structure of energy production, reduced human intake of nutrients and technological development are crucial in diminishing the N and P flows. To enhance nutrient recycling and replace inorganic fertilizers, recycling of such wastes as wood ash and sludge could be promoted. SFA is not usually sufficiently detailed to allow specific recommendations for decision-making to be made, but it does yield useful information about the relative magnitude of the flows and may reveal unexpected losses. Sustainable development is a widely accepted target for all human action. SFA is one method that can help to analyse how effective different efforts are in leading to a more sustainable society. SFA's strength is that it allows a holistic picture of different natural and societal systems to be drawn. Furthermore, when the environmental impact of a certain flow is known, the method can be used to prioritize environmental policy efforts.

Neuronal K-Cl Cotransporter : Transcriptional Mechanisms of KCC2 Gene Regulation

K-Cl cotransporter 2 (KCC2) maintains a low intracellular Cl concentration required for fast hyperpolarizing responses of neurons to classical inhibitory neurotransmitters γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine. Decreased Cl extrusion observed in genetically modified KCC2-deficient mice leads to depolarizing GABA responses, impaired brain inhibition, and as a consequence to epileptic seizures. Identification of mechanisms regulating activity of the SLC12A5 gene, which encodes the KCC2 cotransporter, in normal and pathological conditions is, thus, of extreme importance. Multiple reports have previously elucidated in details a spatio-temporal pattern of KCC2 expression. Among the characteristic features are an exclusive neuronal specificity, a dramatic upregulation during embryonic and early postnatal development, and a significant downregulation by neuronal trauma. Numerous studies confirmed these expressional features, however transcriptional mechanisms predetermining the SLC12A5 gene behaviour are still unknown. The aim of the presented thesis is to recognize such transcriptional mechanisms and, on their basis, to create a transcriptional model that would explain the established SLC12A5 gene behaviour. Up to recently, only one KCC2 transcript has been thought to exist. A particular novelty of the presented work is the identification of two SLC12A5 gene promoters (SLC12A5-1a and SLC12A5-1b) that produce at least two KCC2 isoforms (KCC2a and KCC2b) differing by their N-terminal parts. Even though a functional 86Rb+ assay reveals no significant difference between transport activities of the isoforms, consensus sites for several protein kinases, found in KCC2a but not in KCC2b, imply a distinct kinetic regulation. As a logical continuation, the current work presents a detailed analysis of the KCC2a and KCC2b expression patterns. This analysis shows an exclusively neuron-specific pattern and similar expression levels for both isoforms during embryonic and neonatal development in rodents. During subsequent postnatal development, the KCC2b expression dramatically increases, while KCC2a expression, depending on central nervous system (CNS) area, either remains at the same level or moderately decreases. In an attempt to explain both the neuronal specificity and the distinct expressional kinetics of the KCC2a and KCC2b isoforms during postnatal development, the corresponding SLC12A5-1a and SLC12A5-1b promoters have been subjected to a comprehensive bioinformatical analysis. Binding sites of several transcription factors (TFs), conserved in the mammalian SLC12A5 gene orthologs, have been identified that might shed light on the observed behaviour of the SLC12A5 gene. Possible roles of these TFs in the regulating of the SLC12A5 gene expression have been elucidated in subsequent experiments and are discussed in the current thesis.

Novel Molecular Mechanisms of Arabidopsis Disease Resistance

Plants are capable of recognizing phytopathogens through the perception of pathogen-derived molecules or plant cell-wall degradation products due to the activities of pathogen-secreted enzymes. Such elicitor recognition events trigger an array of inducible defense responses involving signal transduction networks and massive transcriptional re-programming. The outcome of a pathogen infection relies on the balance between different signaling pathways, which are integrated by regulatory proteins. This thesis characterized two key regulatory components: a damage control enzyme, chlorophyllase 1 (AtCHL1), and a transcription factor, WRKY70. Their roles in defense signaling were then investigated. The Erwinia-derived elicitors rapidly activated the expression of AtCLH1 and WRKY70 through different signaling pathways. The expression of the AtCHL1 gene was up-regulated by jasmonic acid (JA) but down-regulated by salicylic acid (SA), whereas WRKY70 was activated by SA and repressed by JA. In order to elucidate the functions of AtCLH1 and WRKY70 in plant defense, stable transgenic lines were produced where these genes were overexpressed or silenced. Additionally, independent knockout lines were also characterized. Bacterial and fungal pathogens were then used to assess the contribution of these genes to the Arabidopsis disease resistance. The transcriptional modulation of AtCLH1 by either the constitutive over-expression or RNAi silencing caused alterations in the chlorophyll-to-chlorophyllide ratio, supporting the claim that chlorophyllase 1 has a role in the chlorophyll degradation pathway. Silencing of this gene led to light-dependent over-accumulation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) in response to infection by Erwinia carotovora subsp. carotovora SCC1. This was followed by an enhanced induction of SA-dependent defense genes and an increased resistance to this pathogen. Interestingly, little effect on the pathogen-induced SA accumulation at the early infection was observed, suggesting that action of ROS might potentiate SA signaling. In contrast, the pathogen-induced JA production was significantly reduced in the RNAi silenced plants. Moreover, JA signaling and resistance to Alternaria brassicicola were impaired. These observations provide support for the argument that the ROS generated in chloroplasts might have a negative impact on JA signaling. The over-expression of WRKY70 resulted in an enhanced resistance to E. carotovora subsp. carotovora SCC1, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 and Erysiphe cichoracearum UCSC1, whilst an antisense suppression or an insertional inactivation of WRKY70 led to a compromised resistance to E. carotovora subsp. carotovora SCC1 and to E. cichoracearum UCSC1 but not to P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Gene expression analysis revealed that WRKY70 activated many known defense-related genes associated with the SAR response but suppressed a subset of the JA-responsive genes. In particular, I was able to show that both the basal and the induced expression of AtCLH1 was enhanced by the antisense silencing or the insertional inactivation of WRKY70, whereas a reduction in AtCLH1 expression was observed in the WRKY70 over-expressors following an MeJA application or an A. brassicicola infection. Moreover, the SA-induced suppression of AtCLH1 was relieved in wrky70 mutants. These results indicate that WRKY70 down-regulates AtCLH1. An epistasis analysis suggested that WRKY70 functions downstream of the NPR1 in an SA-dependent signaling pathway. When challenged with A. brassicicola, WRKY70 over-expressing plants exhibited a compromised disease resistance while wrky70 mutants had the opposite effect. These results confirmed the WRKY70-mediated inhibitory effects on JA signaling. Furthermore, the WRKY70-controlled suppression of A. brassicicola resistance was mainly through an NPR1-dependent mechanism. Taking all the data together, I suggest that the pathogen-responsive transcription factor WRKY70 is a common component in both SA- and JA-dependent pathways and plays a crucial role in the SA-mediated suppression of JA signaling.