Rearing strategies of young dairy calves in relation to production, behaviour and welfare

Vasikoiden kasvatus yksilökarsinoissa, imemismahdollisuuden puute maitojuoton yhteydessä sekä pienet juomamäärät ovat tekijöitä, jotka mahdollisesti voivat vähentää vasikoiden hyvinvointia. Vasikoiden kasvatukseen etsitäänkin uusia tapoja, joissa eläinten käyttäytymistarpeet ja hyvinvointi otetaan entistä paremmin huomioon. Tässä väitöskirjassa vasikoiden kasvatusta on tarkasteltu sekä tuotannon että vasikoiden käyttäytymisen ja hyvinvoinnin kannalta. Väitöskirja koostuu kolmesta kokeesta, joista ensimmäisessä tutkittiin vasikoiden kasvatusta ryhmäkarsinoissa ulkona tai sisällä ja vasikoiden kasvatusta sisällä ryhmä- tai yksilökarsinoissa. Toisessa kokeessa vasikoiden annettiin imeä emiään rajoitetusti lypsyn jälkeen viiden tai kahdeksan viikon ajan ja kolmannessa selvitettiin vasikoiden veden juontia, kun vasikat saivat juomarehua vapaasti. Lisäksi kokeiden yhdistetystä aineistosta analysoitiin eri rehujen syöntimäärien suhdetta sekä rehujen vaikutusta kasvuun ennen ja jälkeen maidosta vieroituksen. Tutkimuksessa todettiin, että vasikoita voi ryhmässä kasvattaa kylmissä ja vaihtelevissa sääoloissa ulkona, kunhan ne hoidetaan ja ruokitaan erittäin huolellisesti. Kylmällä ilmalla vasikat saattavat kuitenkin syödä väkirehua vähemmän varsinkin, jos ruokailupaikka on ulkona ja makuualue sisällä. Ryhmässä kasvaneet vasikat aloittivat sekä kuivien rehujen syönnin että märehtimisen nuorempina kuin yksilökarsinassa kasvaneet. Ryhmissä esiintyvää käyttäytymisongelmaa, toisten vasikoiden imemistä, voidaan vähentää hoito- ja ruokintamenetelmillä. Annettaessa vasikoiden imeä emiään rajoitetusti lypsyn jälkeen vasikat oppivat imemään emiään hyvin nopeasti. Lypsytyö vaikeutui muutamien lehmien kohdalla, sillä ne pidättivät maitoa lypsettäessä. Saadessaan imeä rajoitetusti vasikat imivät suurehkoja maitomääriä kerrallaan. Vieroittaminen suurilta maitomääriltä viiden viikon iässä oli kuitenkin liian aikaista, koska vasikat eivät vielä syöneet riittävästi kuivia rehuja. Vieroitus emästä niin viiden kuin kahdeksankin viikon iässä aiheutti vasikoissa levottomuutta ja ääntelyn lisääntymistä. Saadessaan hapatettua juomarehua vapaasti vasikat joivat keskimäärin vain vähän vettä, olipa vesilähteenä avoin ämpäri tai vesinippa. Vasikoiden välillä oli suurta vaihtelua veden juontimäärissä. Viikkoa ennen maidosta vieroitusta vasikat joivat 0-3 l vettä päivässä. Vasikat joivat nipasta kerrallaan vähemmän vettä kuin ämpäristä, ja käyttivät enemmän aikaa päivässä veden juomiseen kuin vesiämpäristä juoneet vasikat. Suurin osa vasikoista joi vettä juomanipoista erikoisella tavalla esimerkiksi painamalla nippaa otsalla ja juomalla tippuvaa vettä. Vesinipat voivat olla siis vasikoille joko vaikeita tai epämukavia käyttää. Vasikoiden juoman maitomäärän lisääntyessä kasvu lisääntyy selvästi. Runsas maidon juominen vähentää kuitenkin kuivien rehujen syöntiä ja vieroitusvaiheessa kasvu voi hidastua. Vasikat olisikin tärkeää vieroittaa vähitellen, ettei muutoksia kasvuun tulisi. Syönti- ja kasvutulokset eivät aina anna oikeaa kuvaa kasvatusmenetelmien eroista eläinten hyvinvoinnin kannalta. Käyttäytyminen on herkkä hyvinvoinnin mittari ja se tulisikin aina huomioida eri kasvatusmenetelmiä arvioitaessa. .

Plant secondary compounds and soil microbial processes in carbon and nitrogen cycling in relation to tree species

The aim of this study was to explore soil microbial activities related to C and N cycling and the occurrence and concentrations of two important groups of plant secondary compounds, terpenes and phenolic compounds, under silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) as well as to study the effects of volatile monoterpenes and tannins on soil microbial activities. The study site, located in Kivalo, northern Finland, included ca. 70-year-old adjacent stands dominated by silver birch, Norway spruce and Scots pine. Originally the soil was very probably similar in all three stands. All forest floor layers (litter (L), fermentation layer (F) and humified layer (H)) under birch and spruce showed higher rates of CO2 production, greater net mineralisation of nitrogen and higher amounts of carbon and nitrogen in microbial biomass than did the forest floor layers under pine. Concentrations of mono-, sesqui-, di- and triterpenes were higher under both conifers than under birch, while the concentration of total water-soluble phenolic compounds as well as the concentration of condensed tannins tended to be higher or at least as high under spruce as under birch or pine. In general, differences between tree species in soil microbial activities and in concentrations of secondary compounds were smaller in the H layer than in the upper layers. The rate of CO2 production and the amount of carbon in the microbial biomass correlated highly positively with the concentration of total water-soluble phenolic compounds and positively with the concentration of condensed tannins. Exposure of soil to volatile monoterpenes and tannins extracted and fractionated from spruce and pine needles affected carbon and nitrogen transformations in soil, but the effects were dependent on the compound and its molecular structure. Monoterpenes decreased net mineralisation of nitrogen and probably had a toxic effect on part of the microbial population in soil, while another part of the microbes seemed to be able to use monoterpenes as a carbon source. With tannins, low-molecular-weight compounds (also compounds other than tannins) increased soil CO2 production and nitrogen immobilisation by soil microbes while the higher-molecular-weight condensed tannins had inhibitory effects. In conclusion, plant secondary compounds may have a great potential in regulation of C and N transformations in forest soils, but the real magnitude of their significance in soil processes is impossible to estimate.

Fatty acids, fibre, carotenoids and tocopherols in relation to glucose metabolism in subjects at high risk for type 2 diabetes : a cross-sectional analysis

Fatty acids, fibre, carotenoids and tocopherols in relation to glucose metabolism in subjects at high risk for type 2 diabetes a cross-sectional analysis Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a heterogeneous disorder of carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism, resulting from genetics, environmental influences and interactions between these. The disease is characterized by insulin resistance, β-cell dysfunction, hepatic glucose overproduction and disordered fat mobilization and storage. The literature on associations between dietary factors and glucose metabolism is inconsistent. One factor behind the discrepant results may be genetic heterogeneity of study populations. Data on nutrient-gene interactions in relation to glucose metabolism are scarce. Thus, investigating high-risk populations and exploring nutrient-gene interactions are essential for improving the understanding of T2D aetiology. Ideally, this information could help to develop prevention programmes that take into account the genetic predisposition to the disease. In this study, associations between measures of glucose metabolism predicting T2D and fatty acids, antioxidative nutrients and fibre were examined in a high-risk population, i.e., in non-diabetic relatives of affected patients. Interactions between the PPARG Pro12Ala polymorphism and fatty acids on glucose metabolism were taken into consideration. This common polymorphism plays an important role in the regulation of glucose metabolism. The inverse associations observed between dietary fibre and insulin resistance are consistent with the prevailing recommendations urging increased intake of fibre to prevent T2D. Beneficial associations observed between the intake of carotenoids and glucose levels stress that a high consumption of vegetables, fruits and berries rich in carotenoids might also play a role in the prevention of T2D. Whether tocopherols have an independent association with glucose metabolism remains questionable. Observed interactions between fatty acids and glucose metabolism suggest that a high intake of palmitic acid is associated with high fasting glucose levels mainly in female Ala allele carriers. Furthermore, the PPARG Pro12Ala polymorphism may modify the metabolic response to dietary marine fat. The beneficial associations of high intake of marine n 3 fatty acids with insulin resistance and glucose levels may be restricted to carriers of the Ala allele. The findings pertain to subjects with a family history of T2D, and the cross-sectional nature of the study precludes inferences about causality. Results nevertheless show that associations of dietary factors with glucose metabolism may be modulated by the genetic makeup of an individual. Additional research is warranted to elucidate the role of probably numerous nutrient-gene interactions, some of which may be sex-specific, in the aetiology of T2D.

Wind drift of snowfall between the radar volume and ground

This study evaluates how the advection of precipitation, or wind drift, between the radar volume and ground affects radar measurements of precipitation. Normally precipitation is assumed to fall vertically to the ground from the contributing volume, and thus the radar measurement represents the geographical location immediately below. In this study radar measurements are corrected using hydrometeor trajectories calculated from measured and forecasted winds, and the effect of trajectory-correction on the radar measurements is evaluated. Wind drift statistics for Finland are compiled using sounding data from two weather stations spanning two years. For each sounding, the hydrometeor phase at ground level is estimated and drift distance calculated using different originating level heights. This way the drift statistics are constructed as a function of range from radar and elevation angle. On average, wind drift of 1 km was exceeded at approximately 60 km distance, while drift of 10 km was exceeded at 100 km distance. Trajectories were calculated using model winds in order to produce a trajectory-corrected ground field from radar PPI images. It was found that at the upwind side from the radar the effective measuring area was reduced as some trajectories exited the radar volume scan. In the downwind side areas near the edge of the radar measuring area experience improved precipitation detection. The effect of trajectory-correction is most prominent in instant measurements and diminishes when accumulating over longer time periods. Furthermore, measurements of intensive and small scale precipitation patterns benefit most from wind drift correction. The contribution of wind drift on the uncertainty of estimated Ze (S) - relationship was studied by simulating the effect of different error sources to the uncertainty in the relationship coefficients a and b. The overall uncertainty was assumed to consist of systematic errors of both the radar and the gauge, as well as errors by turbulence at the gauge orifice and by wind drift of precipitation. The focus of the analysis is error associated with wind drift, which was determined by describing the spatial structure of the reflectivity field using spatial autocovariance (or variogram). This spatial structure was then used with calculated drift distances to estimate the variance in radar measurement produced by precipitation drift, relative to the other error sources. It was found that error by wind drift was of similar magnitude with error by turbulence at gauge orifice at all ranges from radar, with systematic errors of the instruments being a minor issue. The correction method presented in the study could be used in radar nowcasting products to improve the estimation of visibility and local precipitation intensities. The method however only considers pure snow, and for operational purposes some improvements are desirable, such as melting layer detection, VPR correction and taking solid state hydrometeor type into account, which would improve the estimation of vertical velocities of the hydrometeors.

The Spin-Statistics Relation and Noncommutative Quantum Field Theory

The efforts of combining quantum theory with general relativity have been great and marked by several successes. One field where progress has lately been made is the study of noncommutative quantum field theories that arise as a low energy limit in certain string theories. The idea of noncommutativity comes naturally when combining these two extremes and has profound implications on results widely accepted in traditional, commutative, theories. In this work I review the status of one of the most important connections in physics, the spin-statistics relation. The relation is deeply ingrained in our reality in that it gives us the structure for the periodic table and is of crucial importance for the stability of all matter. The dramatic effects of noncommutativity of space-time coordinates, mainly the loss of Lorentz invariance, call the spin-statistics relation into question. The spin-statistics theorem is first presented in its traditional setting, giving a clarifying proof starting from minimal requirements. Next the notion of noncommutativity is introduced and its implications studied. The discussion is essentially based on twisted Poincaré symmetry, the space-time symmetry of noncommutative quantum field theory. The controversial issue of microcausality in noncommutative quantum field theory is settled by showing for the first time that the light wedge microcausality condition is compatible with the twisted Poincaré symmetry. The spin-statistics relation is considered both from the point of view of braided statistics, and in the traditional Lagrangian formulation of Pauli, with the conclusion that Pauli's age-old theorem stands even this test so dramatic for the whole structure of space-time.

Distribution of non-biting midges (Diptera, Chironomidae) in subarctic lakes of Finnish Lapland applications in lake classification and palaeolimnology

Climate change contributes directly or indirectly to changes in species distributions, and there is very high confidence that recent climate warming is already affecting ecosystems. The Arctic has already experienced the greatest regional warming in recent decades, and the trend is continuing. However, studies on the northern ecosystems are scarce compared to more southerly regions. Better understanding of the past and present environmental change is needed to be able to forecast the future. Multivariate methods were used to explore the distributional patterns of chironomids in 50 shallow (≤ 10m) lakes in relation to 24 variables determined in northern Fennoscandia at the ecotonal area from the boreal forest in the south to the orohemiarctic zone in the north. Highest taxon richness was noted at middle elevations around 400 m a.s.l. Significantly lower values were observed from cold lakes situated in the tundra zone. Lake water alkalinity had the strongest positive correlation with the taxon richness. Many taxa had preference for lakes either on tundra area or forested area. The variation in the chironomid abundance data was best correlated with sediment organic content (LOI), lake water total organic carbon content, pH and air temperature, with LOI being the strongest variable. Three major lake groups were separated on the basis of their chironomid assemblages: (i) small and shallow organic-rich lakes, (ii) large and base-rich lakes, and (iii) cold and clear oligotrophic tundra lakes. Environmental variables best discriminating the lake groups were LOI, taxon richness, and Mg. When repeated, this kind of an approach could be useful and efficient in monitoring the effects of global change on species ranges. Many species of fast spreading insects, including chironomids, show a remarkable ability to track environmental changes. Based on this ability, past environmental conditions have been reconstructed using their chitinous remains in the lake sediment profiles. In order to study the Holocene environmental history of subarctic aquatic systems, and quantitatively reconstruct the past temperatures at or near the treeline, long sediment cores covering the last 10000 years (the Holocene) were collected from three lakes. Lower temperature values than expected based on the presence of pine in the catchment during the mid-Holocene were reconstructed from a lake with great water volume and depth. The lake provided thermal refuge for profundal, cold adapted taxa during the warm period. In a shallow lake, the decrease in the reconstructed temperatures during the late Holocene may reflect the indirect response of the midges to climate change through, e.g., pH change. The results from three lakes indicated that the response of chironomids to climate have been more or less indirect. However, concurrent shifts in assemblages of chironomids and vegetation in two lakes during the Holocene time period indicated that the midges together with the terrestrial vegetation had responded to the same ultimate cause, which most likely was the Holocene climate change. This was also supported by the similarity in the long-term trends in faunal succession for the chironomid assemblages in several lakes in the area. In northern Finnish Lapland the distribution of chironomids were significantly correlated with physical and limnological factors that are most likely to change as a result of future climate change. The indirect and individualistic response of aquatic systems, as reconstructed using the chironomid assemblages, to the climate change in the past suggests that in the future, the lake ecosystems in the north do not respond in one predictable way to the global climate change. Lakes in the north may respond to global climate change in various ways that are dependent on the initial characters of the catchment area and the lake.

Postoperative Volume Therapy in Cardiac Surgery : Effects on Hemostatic and Circulatory Variables

Background: Patients may need massive volume-replacement therapy after cardiac surgery because of large fluid transfer perioperatively, and the use of cardiopulmonary bypass. Hemodynamic stability is better maintained with colloids than crystalloids but colloids have more adverse effects such as coagulation disturbances and impairment of renal function than do crystalloids. The present study examined the effects of modern hydroxyethyl starch (HES) and gelatin solutions on blood coagulation and hemodynamics. The mechanism by which colloids disturb blood coagulation was investigated by thromboelastometry (TEM) after cardiac surgery and in vitro by use of experimental hemodilution. Materials and methods: Ninety patients scheduled for elective primary cardiac surgery (Studies I, II, IV, V), and twelve healthy volunteers (Study III) were included in this study. After admission to the cardiac surgical intensive care unit (ICU), patients were randomized to receive different doses of HES 130/0.4, HES 200/0.5, or 4% albumin solutions. Ringer’s acetate or albumin solutions served as controls. Coagulation was assessed by TEM, and hemodynamic measurements were based on thermodilutionally measured cardiac index (CI). Results: HES and gelatin solutions impaired whole blood coagulation similarly as measured by TEM even at a small dose of 7 mL/kg. These solutions reduced clot strength and prolonged clot formation time. These effects were more pronounced with increasing doses of colloids. Neither albumin nor Ringer’s acetate solution disturbed blood coagulation significantly. Coagulation disturbances after infusion of HES or gelatin solutions were clinically slight, and postoperative blood loss was comparable with that of Ringer’s acetate or albumin solutions. Both single and multiple doses of all the colloids increased CI postoperatively, and this effect was dose-dependent. Ringer’s acetate had no effect on CI. At a small dose (7 mL/kg), the effect of gelatin on CI was comparable with that of Ringer’s acetate and significantly less than that of HES 130/0.4 (Study V). However, when the dose was increased to 14 and 21 mL/kg, the hemodynamic effect of gelatin rose and became comparable with that of HES 130/0.4. Conclusions: After cardiac surgery, HES and gelatin solutions impaired clot strength in a dose-dependent manner. The potential mechanisms were interaction with fibrinogen and fibrin formation, resulting in decreased clot strength, and hemodilution. Although the use of HES and gelatin inhibited coagulation, postoperative bleeding on the first postoperative morning in all the study groups was similar. A single dose of HES solutions improved CI postoperatively more than did gelatin, albumin, or Ringer’s acetate. However, when administered in a repeated fashion, (cumulative dose of 14 mL/kg or more), no differences were evident between HES 130/0.4 and gelatin.

IL-10 in Human Newborns : Ontogeny of IL-10 secretion and relation to the secretion of IFN-g, immunoglobulin M, G, and A, and mononuclear cell composition in newborns

The purpose of this work was to elucidate the ontogeny of interleukin-10 (IL-10) secretion from newborn mononuclear cells (MCs), and to examine its relation to the secretion of interferon-g (IFN-g) and immunoglobulins (Igs). The initial hypothesis was that the decreased immunoglobulin (Ig) synthesis of newborn babies was the result of immature cytokine synthesis regulation, which would lead to excessive IL-10 production, leading in turn to suppressed IFN-g secretion. Altogether 57 full-term newborns and 34 adult volunteers were enrolled. Additionally, surface marker compositions of 29 premature babies were included. Enzyme-linked immunoassays were used to determine the amount of secreted IL-10, IFN-g, and Igs, and the surface marker composition of MC were analyzed with a FACScan flow cytometer. The three most important findings were: 1. Cord blood MC, including CD5+ B cells, are able to secrete IL-10. However, when compared with adults, the secretion of IL-10 was decreased. This indicates that reasons other than excessive IL-10 secretion are responsible of reduced IFN-g secretion in newborns. 2. As illustrated by the IL-10 and IFN-g secretion pattern, newborn cytokine profile was skewed towards the Th2 type. However, approximately 25% of newborns had an adult like cytokine profile with both good IL10 and IFN-g secretion, demonstrating that fullterm newborns are not an immunologically homogenous group at the time of birth. 3. There were significant differences in the surface marker composition of MCs between individual neonates. While gestational age correlated with the proportion of some MC types, it is evident that there are many other maternal and fetal factors that influence the maturity and nature of lymphocyte subpopulations in individual neonates. In conclusion, the reduced ability of neonates to secrete Ig and IFN-g is not a consequence of high IL-10 secretion. However, individual newborns differ significantly in their ability to secrete cytokines as well as Igs.

Common and rare variants of the renin-angiotensin system and their relation to antihypertensive drug responses

Most of the diseases affecting public health, like hypertension, are multifactorial by etiology. Hypertension is influenced by genetic, life style and environmental factors. Estimation of the influence of genes to the risk of essential hypertension varies from 30 to 50%. It is plausible that in most of the cases susceptibility to hypertension is determined by the action of more than one gene. Although the exact molecular mechanism underlying essential hypertension remains obscure, several monogenic forms of hypertension have been identified. Since common genetic variations may predict, not only to susceptibility to hypertension, but also response to antihypertensive drug therapy, pharmacogenetic approaches may provide useful markers in finding relations between candidate genes and phenotypes of hypertension. The aim of this study was to identify genetic mutations and polymorphisms contributing to human hypertension, and examine their relationships to intermediate phenotypes of hypertension, such as blood pressure (BP) responses to antihypertensive drugs or biochemical laboratory values. Two groups of patients were investigated in the present study. The first group was collected from the database of patients investigated in the Hypertension Outpatient Ward, Helsinki University Central Hospital, and consisted of 399 subjects considered to have essential hypertension. Frequncies of the mutant or variant alleles were compared with those in two reference groups, healthy blood donors (n = 301) and normotensive males (n = 175). The second group of subjects with hypertension was collected prospectively. The study subjects (n=313) underwent a protocol lasting eight months, including four one-month drug treatment periods with antihypertensive medications (thiazide diuretic, β-blocker, calcium channel antagonist, and an angiotensin II receptor antagonist). BP responses and laboratory values were related to polymorphims of several candidate genes of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). In addition, two patients with typical features of Liddle’s syndrome were screened for mutations in kidney epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) subunits. Two novel mutations causing Liddle’s syndrome were identified. The first mutation identified located in the beta-subunit of ENaC and the second mutation found located in the gamma-subunit, constituting the first identified Liddle mutation locating in the extracellular domain. This mutation showed 2-fold increase in channel activity in vitro. Three gene variants, of which two are novel, were identified in ENaC subunits. The prevalence of the variants was three times higher in hypertensive patients (9%) than in reference groups (3%). The variant carriers had increased daily urinary potassium excretion rate in relation to their renin levels compared with controls suggesting increased ENaC activity, although in vitro they did not show increased channel activity. Of the common polymorphisms of the RAS studied, angiotensin II receptor type I (AGTR1) 1166 A/C polymorphism was associated with modest changes in RAS activity. Thus, patients homozygous for the C allele tended to have increased aldosterone and decreased renin levels. In vitro functional studies using transfected HEK293 cells provided additional evidence that the AGTR1 1166 C allele may be associated with increased expression of the AGTR1. Common polymorphisms of the alpha-adducin and the RAS genes did not significantly predict BP responses to one-month monotherapies with hydroclorothiazide, bisoprolol, amlodipin, or losartan. In conclusion, two novel mutations of ENaC subunits causing Liddle’s syndrome were identified. In addition, three common ENaC polymorphisms were shown to be associated with occurrence of essential hypertension, but their exact functional and clinical consequences remain to be explored. The AGTR1 1166 C allele may modify the endocrine phenotype of hypertensive patients, when present in homozygous form. Certain widely studied polymorphisms of the ACE, angiotensinogen, AGTR1 and alpha-adducin genes did not significantly affect responses to a thiazide, β-blocker, calcium channel antagonist, and angiotensin II receptor antagonist.