The role of MADS and TCP transcription factors in Gerbera hybrida flower development

Angiosperms represent a huge diversity in floral structures. Thus, they provide an attractive target for comparative developmental genetics studies. Research on flower development has focused on few main model plants, and studies on these species have revealed the importance of transcription factors, such as MADS-box and TCP genes, for regulating the floral form. The MADS-box genes determine floral organ identities, whereas the TCP genes are known to regulate flower shape and the number of floral organs. In this study, I have concentrated on these two gene families and their role in regulating flower development in Gerbera hybrida, a species belonging to the large sunflower family (Asteraceae). The Gerbera inflorescence is comprised of hundreds of tightly clustered flowers that differ in their size, shape and function according to their position in the inflorescence. The presence of distinct flower types tells Gerbera apart from the common model species that bear only single kinds of flowers in their inflorescences. The marginally located ray flowers have large bilaterally symmetrical petals and non-functional stamens. The centrally located disc flowers are smaller, have less pronounced bilateral symmetry and carry functional stamens. Early stages of flower development were studied in Gerbera to understand the differentiation of flower types better. After morphological analysis, we compared gene expression between ray and disc flowers to reveal transcriptional differences in flower types. Interestingly, MADS-box genes showed differential expression, suggesting that they might take part in defining flower types by forming flower-type-specific regulatory complexes. Functional analysis of a CYCLOIDEA-like TCP gene GhCYC2 provided evidence that TCP transcription factors are involved in flower type differentiation in Gerbera. The expression of GhCYC2 is ray-flower-specific at early stages of development and activated only later in disc flowers. Overexpression of GhCYC2 in transgenic Gerbera-lines causes disc flowers to obtain ray-flower-like characters, such as elongated petals and disrupted stamen development. The expression pattern and transgenic phenotypes further suggest that GhCYC2 may shape ray flowers by promoting organ fusion. Cooperation of GhCYC2 with other Gerbera CYC-like TCP genes is most likely needed for proper flower type specification, and by this means for shaping the elaborate inflorescence structure. Gerbera flower development was also approached by characterizing B class MADS-box genes, which in the main model plants are known regulators of petal and stamen identity. The four Gerbera B class genes were phylogenetically grouped into three clades; GGLO1 into the PI/GLO clade, GDEF2 and GDEF3 into the euAP3 clade and GDEF1 into the TM6 clade. Putative orthologs for GDEF2 and GDEF3 were identified in other Asteraceae species, which suggests that they appeared through an Asteraceae-specific duplication. Functional analyses indicated that GGLO1 and GDEF2 perform conventional B-function as they determine petal and stamen identities. Our studies on GDEF1 represent the first functional analysis of a TM6-like gene outside the Solanaceae lineage and provide further evidence for the role of TM6 clade members in specifying stamen development. Overall, the Gerbera B class genes showed both commonalities and diversifications with the conventional B-function described in the main model plants.

Enzymatic cross-linking of β-casein and its impact on digestibility and allergenicity

Protein modification via enzymatic cross-linking is an attractive way for altering food structure so as to create products with increased quality and nutritional value. These modifications are expected to affect not only the structure and physico-chemical properties of proteins but also their physiological characteristics, such as digestibility in the GI-tract and allergenicity. Protein cross-linking enzymes such as transglutaminases are currently commercially available, but also other types of cross-linking enzymes are being explored intensively. In this study, enzymatic cross-linking of β-casein, the most abundant bovine milk protein, was studied. Enzymatic cross-linking reactions were performed by fungal Trichoderma reesei tyrosinase (TrTyr) and the performance of the enzyme was compared to that of transglutaminase from Streptoverticillium mobaraense (Tgase). Enzymatic cross-linking reactions were followed by different analytical techniques, such as size exclusion chromatography -Ultra violet/Visible multi angle light scattering (SEC-UV/Vis-MALLS), phosphorus nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P-NMR), atomic force (AFM) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). The research results showed that in both cases cross-linking of β-casein resulted in the formation of high molecular mass (MM ca. 1 350 kg mol-1), disk-shaped nanoparticles when the highest enzyme dosage and longest incubation times were used. According to SEC-UV/Vis-MALLS data, commercial β-casein was cross-linked almost completely when TrTyr and Tgase were used as cross-linking enzymes. In the case of TrTyr, high degree of cross-linking was confirmed by 31P-NMR where it was shown that 91 % of the tyrosine side-chains were involved in the cross-linking. The impact of enzymatic cross-linking of β-casein on in vitro digestibility by pepsin was followed by various analytical techniques. The research results demonstrated that enzymatically cross-linked β-casein was stable under the acidic conditions present in the stomach. Furthermore, it was found that cross-linked β-casein was more resistant to pepsin digestion when compared to that of non modified β-casein. The effects of enzymatic cross-linking of β-casein on allergenicity were also studied by different biochemical test methods. On the basis of the research results, enzymatic cross-linking decreased allergenicity of native β-casein by 14 % when cross-linked by TrTyr and by 6 % after treatment by Tgase. It can be concluded that in addition to the basic understanding of the reaction mechanism of TrTyr on protein matrix, the research results obtained in this study can have high impact on various applications like food, cosmetic, medical, textile and packing sectors.

The effects of abiotic and biotic factors on somatic embryogenesis and seedlings of Pinus sylvestris (L.)

Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is an asexual form of plant propagation that occurs in nature and mimics many of the events of sexual reproduction. Pinus sylvestris (L.) is an important source of timber in Northern Eurasia but it is recalcitrant to somatic embryogenesis. Several factors important for the success of the P. sylvestris embryogenic cultures have not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we examined the effects of parental genotypes on the SE in P. sylvestris, the involvement of the gaseous plant growth regulator, ethylene in SE, and also biotic effects on somatic embryos as well as on seedlings. We tested parental effects on immature embryo initiation for different media, storage periods, and on the maturation process. Maternal effects were found to be crucial for SE in the absence of paternal effects. No maternal-paternal interaction was observed at any stage of somatic embryo production. Additionally the role of ethylene at different developmental stages of SE was investigated. Two ACC synthase genes, PsACS1 and PsACS2, were isolated and characterized. PsACS1 was expressed during the proliferation stage in all tested genotypes, whereas PsACS2 was only expressed in somatic embryos of each genotype. Ethylene production in embryos at stage 3 was significantly higher than the other stages. In a parallel study, the response of somatic embryos to fungal elicitors was investigated. Three fungi, a mutualistic ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungus (Suillus bovinus), a weak Scots pine pathogen (Heterobasidion parviporum) and a strong pathogen (H. annosum) were used. The gene expression patterns for embryos exposed to the H. parviporum elicitor were found to be similar to that documented for S. bovinus among the tested genes. By contrast somatic embryos exposed to the H. annosum elicitor had a different pattern of regulation which was marked by a delayed response, and in some cases death of the embryos. Furthermore, interaction without direct contact between P. sylvestris seedlings and microbes (mutualistic and pathogenic fungus, cyanobacterium) were investigated. Several novel genes expressed in seedlings treated with ECM fungus were isolated which suggested that physical contact is not necessary for elicitation of host responses. The results suggest that somatic embryos and seedlings of P. sylvestris are genetically well equipped to respond to fungal elicitor/exudates and could serve as a suitable model for reproducible molecular studies in conifer tree patho- and symbiotic systems.

Impact of agricultural market liberalization on food security in developing countries : a comparative study of Kenya and Zambia

This research investigates the impacts of agricultural market liberalization on food security in developing countries and it evaluates the supply perspective of food security. This research theme is applied on the agricultural sector in Kenya and in Zambia by studying the role policies played in the maize sub-sector. An evaluation of selected policies introduced at the beginning of the 1980s is made, as well as an assessment of whether those policies influenced maize output. A theoretical model of agricultural production is then formulated to reflect cereal production in a developing country setting. This study begins with a review of the general framework and the aims of the structural adjustment programs and proceeds to their application in the maize sector in Kenya and Zambia. A literature review of the supply and demand synthesis of food security is presented with examples from various developing countries. Contrary to previous studies on food security, this study assesses two countries with divergent economic orientations. Agricultural sector response to economic and institutional policies in different settings is also evaluated. Finally, a dynamic time series econometric model is applied to assess the effects of policy on maize output. The empirical findings suggest a weak policy influence on maize output, but the precipitation and acreage variables stand out as core determinants of maize output. The policy dimension of acreage and how markets influence it is not discussed at length in this study. Due to weak land rights and tenure structures in these countries, the direct impact of policy change on land markets cannot be precisely measured. Recurring government intervention during the structural policy implementation period impeded efficient functioning of input and output markets, particularly in Zambia. Input and output prices of maize and fertilizer responded more strongly in Kenya than in Zambia, where the state often ceded to public pressure by revoking pertinent policy measures. These policy interpretations are based on the response of policy variables which are more responsive in Kenya than in Zambia. According the obtained regression results, agricultural markets in general, and the maize sub-sector in particular, responded more positively to implemented policies in Kenya, than in Zambia, which supported a more socialist economic system. It is observed in these results that in order for policies to be effective, sector and regional dimensions need to be considered. The regional and sector dimensions were not taken into account in the formulation and implementation of structural adjustment policies in the 1980s. It can be noted that countries with vibrant economic structures and institutions fared better than those which had a firm, socially founded system.

Plant communities of field margins : the effects of management and environmental factors on species composition and diversity

Agri-environmental schemes have so far resulted in only minor positive implications for the biodiversity of agricultural environments, in contrast to what has been expected. Land-use intensification has decreased landscape heterogeneity and the amount of semi-natural habitats. Field margins are uncultivated areas of permanent vegetation located adjacent to fields. Since the number of these habitats is high, investing in their quality may result in more diverse agricultural landscapes. Field margins can be considered as multifunctional habitats providing agronomic, environmental and wildlife services. This thesis aimed at examining the plant communities of different types of field margin habitats and the factors affecting their species diversity and composition. The importance of edaphic, spatial and management factors was studied on regional, landscape and habitat scales. Vegetation surveys were conducted on regional and landscape scales and a field experiment on cutting management was conducted on a habitat scale. In field margin plant communities, species appeared to be indicators of high or intermediate soil fertility and moist soil conditions. The plant species diversity found was rather low, compared with most species-rich agricultural habitats in Finland, such as dry meadows. Among regions, land-use history, main production line, natural species and human induced distribution, climate and edaphic factors were elements inducing differences in species composition. The lowest regional species diversity of field margins was related to intensive and long-term cereal production. Management by cutting and removal or grazing had a positive effect on plant species diversity. The positive effect of cutting and removal on species richness was also dependent on the adjacent source of colonizing species. Therefore, in species-poor habitats and landscapes, establishment of margins with diverse seed mixtures can be recommended for enhancing the development of species richness. However, seed mixtures should include only native species preferably local origin. Management by cutting once a year for 5 years did not result in a decline in dominance of a harmful weed species, Elymus repens, showing that E. repens probably needs cutting more frequently than once per year. Agri-environmental schemes should include long-term contracts with farmers for the establishment, and management by cutting and removal or grazing, of field margins that are several metres wide. In such schemes, the timing and frequency of management should be planned so as not to harm other taxa, such as the insects and birds that are dependent on these habitats. All accidental herbicide drifts to field margins should be avoided when spraying the cultivated area to minimize the negative effects of sprayings on vegetation. The harmful effects of herbicides can be avoided by organic farming methods.

CSR in forest industry – Case study of reporting and implementation of social responsibility in three international companies

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has become increasingly important topic in forest industries, and other global companies, in recent years. Globalisation, faster information delivery and demand for sustainable development have set new challenges for global companies in their business operations. Also the importance of stakeholder relations, and pressure to become more transparent has increased in the forest industries. Three dimensions of corporate responsibility economic, environmental and social, are often included in the concept of CSR. Global companies mostly claim that these dimensions are equally important. This study analyses CSR in forest industry and has focus on reporting and implementation of social responsibility in three international companies. These case-companies are Stora Enso, SCA and Sappi, and they have different geographical base, product portfolios and therefore present interesting differences about forest industry strategy and CSR. Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) has created the most known and used reporting framework in CSR reporting. GRI Guidelines have made CSR reporting a uniform function, which can also be measured between companies and different sectors. GRI Guidelines have also made it possible to record and control CSR data in the companies. In recent years the use of GRI Guidelines has increased substantially. Typically CSR reporting on economic and environmental responsibility have been systematic in the global companies and often driven by legistlation and other regulations. However the social responsibility has been less regulated and more difficult to compare. Therefore it has previously been often less focused in the CSR reporting of the global companies. The implementation and use of GRI Guidelines have also increased dialogue on social responsibility issues and stakeholder management in global companies. This study analyses the use of GRI´s framework in the forest industry companies´ CSR reporting. This is a qualitative study and the disclosure of data is empricially analysed using content analysis. Content analysis has been selected as a method for this study because it makes it possible to use different sources of information. The data of this study consists of existing academic literature of CSR, sustainability reports of thecase-companies during 2005-2009, and the semi-structured interviews with company representatives. Different sources provide the possibility to look at specific subject from more than one viewpoint. The results of the study show that all case-companies have relatively common themes in their CSR disclosure, and the differences rise mainly from their product-portfolios, and geographic base. Social impacts to local communities, in the CSR of the companies, were mainly dominated by issues concerning creating wealth to the society and impacting communities through creation of work. The comparability of the CSR reporting, and especially social indicators increased significally from 2007 onwards in all case-companies. Even though the companies claim that three dimensions of CSR economic, environmental and social are equally important economic issues and profit improvement still seem to drive most of the operations in the global companies. Many issues that are covered by laws and regulations are still essentially presented as social responsibility in CSR. However often the unwelcome issues in companies like closing operations are covered just briefly, and without adequate explanation. To make social responsibility equally important in the CSR it would demand more emphasis from all the case-companies. A lot of emphasis should be put especially on the detail and extensiveness of the social reponsibility content in the CSR.

Use of wetland buffer areas to reduce nitrogen transport from forested catchments: Retention capacity, emissions of N2O and CH4 and vegetation composition dynamics

The use of buffer areas in forested catchments has been actively researched during the last 15 years; but until now, the research has mainly concentrated on the reduction of sediment and phosphorus loads, instead of nitrogen (N). The aim of this thesis was to examine the use of wetland buffer areas to reduce the nitrogen transport in forested catchments and to investigate the environmental impacts involved in their use. Besides the retention capacity, particular attention was paid to the main factors contributing to the N retention, the potential for increased N2O emissions after large N loading, the effects of peatland restoration for use as buffer areas on CH4 emissions, as well as the vegetation composition dynamics induced by the use of peatlands as buffer areas. To study the capacity of buffer areas to reduce N transport in forested catchments, we first used large artificial loadings of N, and then studied the capacity of buffer areas to reduce ammonium (NH4-N) export originating from ditch network maintenance areas in forested catchments. The potential for increased N2O emissions were studied using the closed chamber technique and a large artificial N loading at five buffer areas. Sampling for CH4 emissions and methane-cycling microbial populations were done on three restored buffer areas and on three buffers constructed on natural peatlands. Vegetation composition dynamics was studied at three buffer areas between 1996 and 2009. Wetland buffer areas were efficient in retaining inorganic N from inflow. The key factors contributing to the retention were the size and the length of the buffer, the hydrological loading and the rate of nutrient loading. Our results show that although the N2O emissions may increase temporarily to very high levels after a large N loading into the buffer area, the buffer areas in forested catchments should be viewed as insignificant sources of N2O. CH4 fluxes were substantially higher from buffers constructed on natural peatlands than from the restored buffer areas, probably because of the slow recovery of methanogens after restoration. The use of peatlands as buffer areas was followed by clear changes in plant species composition and the largest changes occurred in the upstream parts of the buffer areas and the wet lawn-level surfaces, where the contact between the vegetation and the through-flow waters was closer than for the downstream parts and dry hummock sites. The changes in the plant species composition may be an undesired phenomenon especially in the case of the mires representing endangered mire site types, and therefore the construction of new buffer areas should be primarily directed into drained peatland areas.

Determinants of farmer retirement and farm succession in Finland

In the past decade, the Finnish agricultural sector has undergone rapid structural changes. The number of farms has decreased and the average farm size has increased when the number of farms transferred to new entrants has decreased. Part of the structural change in agriculture is manifested in early retirement programmes. In studying farmers exit behaviour in different countries, institutional differences, incentive programmes and constraints are found to matter. In Finland, farmers early retirement programmes were first introduced in 1974 and, during the last ten years, they have been carried out within the European Union framework for these programmes. The early retirement benefits are farmer specific and de-pend on the level of pension insurance the farmer has paid over his active farming years. In order to predict the future development of the agricultural sector, farmers have been frequently asked about their future plans and their plans for succession. However, the plans the farmers made for succession have been found to be time inconsistent. This study estimates the value of farmers stated succession plans in predicting revealed succession decisions. A stated succession plan exists when a farmer answers in a survey questionnaire that the farm is going to be transferred to a new entrant within a five-year period. The succession is revealed when the farm is transferred to a suc-cessor. Stated and revealed behaviour was estimated as a recursive Binomial Probit Model, which accounts for the censoring of the decision variables and controls for a potential correlation between the two equations. The results suggest that the succession plans, as stated by elderly farmers in the questionnaires, do not provide information that is significant and valuable in predicting true, com-pleted successions. Therefore, farmer exit should be analysed based on observed behaviour rather than on stated plans and intentions. As farm retirement plays a crucial role in determining the characteristics of structural change in agriculture, it is important to establish the factors which determine an exit from farming among eld-erly farmers and how off-farm income and income losses affect their exit choices. In this study, the observed choice of pension scheme by elderly farmers was analysed by a bivariate probit model. Despite some variations in significance and the effects of each factor, the ages of the farmer and spouse, the age and number of potential successors, farm size, income loss when retiring and the location of the farm together with the production line were found to be the most important determi-nants of early retirement and the transfer or closure of farms. Recently, the labour status of the spouse has been found to contribute significantly to individual retirement decisions. In this study, the effect of spousal retirement and economic incentives related to the timing of a farming couple s early retirement decision were analysed with a duration model. The results suggest that an expected pension in particular advances farm transfers. It was found that on farms operated by a couple, both early retirement and farm succession took place more often than on farms operated by a single person. However, the existence of a spouse delayed the timing of early retirement. Farming couples were found to co-ordinate their early retirement decisions when they both exit through agricultural retirement programmes, but such a co-ordination did not exist when one of the spouses retired under other pension schemes. Besides changes in the agricultural structure, the share and amount of off-farm income of a farm family s total income has also increased. In the study, the effect of off-farm income on farmers retirement decisions, in addition to other financial factors, was analysed. The unknown parameters were first estimated by a switching-type multivariate probit model and then by the simulated maxi-mum likelihood (SML) method, controlling for farmer specific fixed effects and serial correlation of the errors. The results suggest that elderly farmers off-farm income is a significant determinant in a farmer s choice to exit and close down the farm. However, off-farm income only has a short term effect on structural changes in agriculture since it does not significantly contribute to the timing of farm successions.

The connection between on-farm assessed welfare (A-index) and production parameters of the sows

Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää tilalla määritetyn hyvinvoinnin yhteyttä emakoiden tuotantotuloksiin. Hyvinvointia arvioitiin suomalaisen hyvinvointi-indeksin, A-indeksi, avulla. Tuotantotuloksina käytettiin kahta erilaista tuotosaineistoa, jotka molemmat pohjautuivat kansalliseen tuotosseuranta aineistoon. Hyvinvointimääritykset tehtiin 30 porsastuotantosikalassa maaliskuun 2007 aikana. A-indeksi koostuu kuudesta kategoriasta ’liikkumismahdollisuudet’, ’alustan ominaisuudet’, ’sosiaaliset kontaktit’, ’valo, ilma ja melu’, ’ruokinta ja veden saanti’ sekä ’eläinten terveys ja hoidon taso’. Jokaisessa kategoriassa on 3-10 pääosin ympäristöperäistä muuttujaa, jotka vaihtelevat osastoittain. Maksimipistemäärä osastolle on 100. Hyvinvointimittaukset tehtiin porsitus-, tiineytys- ja joutilasosastoilla. Erillisten tiineytysosastojen pienen lukumäärän takia (n=7) tilakohtaiset tiineytys- ja joutilasosastopisteet yhdistettiin ja keskiarvoja käytettiin analyyseissä. Yhteyksiä tuotokseen tutkittiin kahden eri aineiston avulla 1) Tilaraportti aineisto (n=29) muodostuu muokkaamattomista tila- ja tuotostuloksista tilavierailua edeltävän vuoden ajalta, 2) POTSIaineisto (n=30) muodostuu POTSI-ohjelmalla (MTT) muokatusta tuotantoaineistosta, joka sisältää managementtiryhmän (tila, vuosi, vuodenaika) vaikutuksen ensikoiden ja emakoiden pahnuekohtaiseen tuotokseen. Yhteyksiä analysointiin korrelaatio- ja regressioanalyysien avulla. Vaikka osallistuminen tutkimukseen oli vapaaehtoista, molempien tuotantoaineistojen perusteella tutkimustilat edustavat keskituottoista suomalaista sikatilaa. A-indeksin kokonaispisteet vaihtelivat välillä 37,5–64,0 porsitusosastolla ja 39,5–83,5 joutilasosastolla. Tilaraporttiaineistoa käytettäessä paremmat pisteet porsitusosaston ’eläinten terveys ja hoidon taso’ -kategoriasta lyhensivät eläinten lisääntymissykliä, lisäsivät syntyvien pahnueiden ja porsaiden määrää sekä alensivat kuolleena syntyneiden lukumäärää. Regressiomallin mukaan ’eläinten terveys ja hoidon taso’ -kategoria selitti syntyvien porsaiden lukumäärän, porsimisvälin pituuden sekä keskiporsimiskerran vaihtelua. Paremmat pisteet joutilasosaston ’liikkumismahdollisuudet’ kategoriasta alensivat syntyneiden pahnueiden sekä syntyneiden että vieroitettujen porsaiden lukumäärää. Regressiomallin mukaan ensikkopahnueiden osuus ja ”liikkumismahdollisuudet” kategorian pisteet selittivät vieroitettujen porsaiden lukumäärän vaihtelua. POTSI-aineiston yhteydessä kuolleena syntyneiden porsaiden lukumäärän aleneminen oli ensikoilla yhteydessä parempiin porsitusosaston ’sosiaalisiin kontakteihin’ ja emakoilla puolestaan joutilasosaston parempiin ’eläinten terveys ja hoidon taso’ pisteisiin. Kahden eri tuotantoaineiston avulla saadut tulokset erosivat toisistaan. Seuraavissa tutkimuksissa onkin suositeltavampaa käyttää Tilaraporttiaineistoja, joissa tuotokset ilmoitetaan vuosikohtaisina. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella hyvinvoinnilla ja tuotoksella on yhteyksiä, joilla on myös merkittävää taloudellista vaikutusta. Erityisesti hyvä eläinten hoito ja eläinten terveys lisäävät tuotettujen porsaiden määrää ja lyhentävät lisääntymiskiertoa. Erityishuomiota tulee kiinnittää vapaana olevien joutilaiden emakoiden sosiaaliseen stressiin ja rehunsaannin varmistamiseen kaikille yksilöille.

A capability-based view of organisational renewal : Combining opportunity- and advantage-seeking growth in large, established European and North American wood-industry companies

The purpose of this study was to extend understanding of how large firms pursuing sustained and profitable growth manage organisational renewal. A multiple-case study was conducted in 27 North American and European wood-industry companies, of which 11 were chosen for closer study. The study combined the organisational-capabilities approach to strategic management with corporate-entrepreneurship thinking. It charted the further development of an identification and classification system for capabilities comprising three dimensions: (i) the dynamism between firm-specific and industry-significant capabilities, (ii) hierarchies of capabilities and capability portfolios, and (iii) their internal structure. Capability building was analysed in the context of the organisational design, the technological systems and the type of resource-bundling process (creating new vs. entrenching existing capabilities). The thesis describes the current capability portfolios and the organisational changes in the case companies. It also clarifies the mechanisms through which companies can influence the balance between knowledge search and the efficiency of knowledge transfer and integration in their daily business activities, and consequently the diversity of their capability portfolio and the breadth and novelty of their product/service range. The largest wood-industry companies of today must develop a seemingly dual strategic focus: they have to combine leading-edge, innovative solutions with cost-efficient, large-scale production. The use of modern technology in production was no longer a primary source of competitiveness in the case companies, but rather belonged to the portfolio of basic capabilities. Knowledge and information management had become an industry imperative, on a par with cost effectiveness. Yet, during the period of this research, the case companies were better in supporting growth in volume of the existing activity than growth through new economic activities. Customer-driven, incremental innovation was preferred over firm-driven innovation through experimentation. The three main constraints on organisational renewal were the lack of slack resources, the aim for lean, centralised designs, and the inward-bound communication climate.