Thermal evolution of lower limbs during a rehabilitation process after anterior cruciate ligament surgery

Infrared thermography (IRT) is a safe and non-invasive tool used for examining physiological functions based on skin temperature (Tsk) control. The aim of this paper was to establish the probable thermal difference between the beginning and the end of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rehabilitation process after surgery. For this purpose thermograms from 25 ACL surgically operated patients (2 women, 23 men) were taken on the first and last day of a six-week rehabilitation program. A FLIR infrared camera according to the protocol established by the International Academy of Clinical Thermology (IACT). The results showed significant temperature increases in the posterior thigh area between the first and the last week of the rehabilitation process probably due to a compensatory mechanism. According to this, we can conclude that temperature of the posterior area of the injured and non-injured leg has increased from the first to the last day of the rehabilitation process.

Preliminary mineralogy and ore petrology of the intermediate-sulfidation pallancata deposit, Ayacucho, Peru

Se investiga la compleja mineralogía del Yacimiento de Pallancata (6º productor de plata del mundo) y se establecen las condiciones de formación (P.T) basadas en la petrología de las menas comparada con los datos de mineralogía experimental y en la petrografía y microtermometría de inclusiones fluídas en la ganga silicatada, resultando un depósito típicamente caracterizado como epitermal de sulfuración intermedia.ABSTRACT:Pallancata is a world-class intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposit, hosted by upper Miocene volcanics of the south-central Peruvian Andes in a sinuous N70ºW, ∼75º SW strike-slip structure, with wide (up to 35 m) pull-apart dilation zones related to bends of the vein strike. The structural evolution of the vein from earlier brecciation to later open space infill resembles the Shila Paula district (Chauvet et al. 2006). Fluid inclusion petrography and microthermometry show that ore deposition is related to protracted boiling of very diluted, mainly meteoric fluids, starting at 250–260 ºC, under ∼300 m hydrostatic head. The mineralogical-petrological study reveals a complex sequence of mineralization (eight stages) and mineral reactions consistent with Ag2S enrichment or Sb2S3 depletion, or both, during cooling over the temperature range 250–200 ºC: pyrite, sphalerite, galena, miargyrite, pyrargyrite-proustite, chalcopyrite, polybasite-pearceite, argentite (now acanthite), and Au–Ag alloy (“electrum”). This Ag2S enrichment and Sb2S3depletion during cooling may be explained by decay of a Ag-rich galena precursor at deeper levels (Pb2S2–AgSbS2 solid solution), which rapidly becomes unstable with decreasing temperature, producing residual (stoichiometric) PbS and more mobile Ag and Sb sulfide phases, which migrated upward and laterally away from the thermal core of the system. The core is still undisclosed by mining works, but the available geochemical evidence (logAg/log Pb ratios decreasing at depth) is consistent with this interpretation, implying a deeper potential resource. Data from sulfide geothermometry, based on mineral equilibria, document the thermal evolution of the system below 200 ºC (stephanite, uytenbogaardtite, jalpaite, stromeyerite, mckinstryite, among others). The end of the most productive stages (3, 4, and 5) is marked by the precipitation of stephanite at temperatures below 197 ± 5 ºC, but precipitation of residual silver continues through the waning stages of the hydrothermal system down to <93.3 ºC (stromeyerite) or in a supergene redistribution (stage 8, acanthite II).

Anisotropic magnetoresistive study in bilayer NiFe-NiO for sensor applications

Related with the detection of weak magnetic fields, the anisotropic magnetoresistive (AMR) effect is widely utilized in sensor applications. Exchange coupling between an antiferromagnet (AF) and the ferromagnet (FM) has been known as a significant parameter in the field sensitivity of magnetoresistance because of pinning effects on magnetic domain in FM layer by the bias field in AF. In this work we have studied the thermal evolution of the magnetization reversal processes in nanocrystalline exchange biased Ni80Fe20/Ni-O bilayers with large training effects and we report the anisotropic magnetoresistance ratio arising from field orientation in the bilayer.

Anisotropic magnetoresistive study in bilayer NiFe-NiO for sensor applications

Related with the detection of weak magnetic fields, the anisotropic magnetoresistive(AMR) effect is widely utilized in sensor applications. Exchange coupling between an antiferromagnet (AF) and the ferromagnet (FM) has been known as a significant parameter in the field sensitivity of magnetoresistance because of pinning effects on magnetic domain in FM layer by the bias field in AF. In this work we have studied the thermal evolution of the magnetization reversal processes in nanocrystalline exchange biased Ni80Fe20/Ni-O bilayers with large training effects and we report the anisotropic magnetoresistance ratio arising from field orientation in the bilayer.

Thermal diffusion profile by NRA of Deuterium implanted in solid breeder blanket materials

This paper studies the relationship between aging, physical changes and the results of non-destructive testing of plywood. 176 pieces of plywood were tested to analyze their actual and estimated density using non-destructive methods (screw withdrawal force and ultrasound wave velocity) during a laboratory aging test. From the results of statistical analysis it can be concluded that there is a strong relationship between the non-destructive measurements carried out, and the decline in the physical properties of the panels due to aging. The authors propose several models to estimate board density. The best results are obtained with ultrasound. A reliable prediction of the degree of deterioration (aging) of board is presented. Breeder blanket materials have to produce tritium from lithium while fulfilling several strict conditions. In particular, when dealing with materials to be applied in fusion reactors, one of the key questions is the study of light ions retention, which can be produced by transmutation reactions and/or introduced by interaction with the plasma. In ceramic breeders the understanding of the hydrogen isotopes behaviour and specially the diffusion of tritium to the surface is crucial. Moreover the evolution of the microstructure during irradiation with energetic ions, neutrons and electrons is complex because of the interaction of a high number of processes.

A molecular dynamics study of swift heavy ion irradiation of amorphous silica: the role of thermal effects

Irradiation with swift heavy ions (SHI), roughly defined as those having atomic masses larger than 15 and energies exceeding 1 MeV/amu, may lead to significant modification of the irradiated material in a nanometric region around the (straight) ion trajectory (latent tracks). In the case of amorphous silica, SHI irradiation originates nano-tracks of higher density than the virgin material (densification). As a result, the refractive index is increased with respect to that of the surroundings. Moreover, track overlapping leads to continuous amorphous layers that present a significant contrast with respect to the pristine substrate. We have recently demonstrated that SHI irradiation produces a large number of point defects, easily detectable by a number of experimental techniques (work presented in the parallel conference ICDIM). The mechanisms of energy transfer from SHI to the target material have their origin in the high electronic excitation induced in the solid. A number of phenomenological approaches have been employed to describe these mechanisms: coulomb explosion, thermal spike, non-radiative exciton decay, bond weakening. However, a detailed microscopic description is missing due to the difficulty of modeling the time evolution of the electronic excitation. In this work we have employed molecular dynamics (MD) calculations to determine whether the irradiation effects are related to the thermal phenomena described by MD (in the ps domain) or to electronic phenomena (sub-ps domain), e.g., exciton localization. We have carried out simulations of up to 100 ps with large boxes (30x30x8 nm3) using a home-modified version of MDCASK that allows us to define a central hot cylinder (ion track) from which heat flows to the surrounding cold bath (unirradiated sample). We observed that once the cylinder has cooled down, the Si and O coordination numbers are 4 and 2, respectively, as in virgin silica. On the other hand, the density of the (cold) cylinder increases with respect to that of silica and, furthermore, the silica network ring size decreases. Both effects are in agreement with the observed densification. In conclusion, purely thermal effects do not explain the generation of point defects upon irradiation, but they do account for the silica densification.

Monte Carlo Neutronics and Thermal-hydraulics coupling applied to Fast Reactors

Un escenario habitualmente considerado para el uso sostenible y prolongado de la energía nuclear contempla un parque de reactores rápidos refrigerados por metales líquidos (LMFR) dedicados al reciclado de Pu y la transmutación de actínidos minoritarios (MA). Otra opción es combinar dichos reactores con algunos sistemas subcríticos asistidos por acelerador (ADS), exclusivamente destinados a la eliminación de MA. El diseño y licenciamiento de estos reactores innovadores requiere herramientas computacionales prácticas y precisas, que incorporen el conocimiento obtenido en la investigación experimental de nuevas configuraciones de reactores, materiales y sistemas. A pesar de que se han construido y operado un cierto número de reactores rápidos a nivel mundial, la experiencia operacional es todavía reducida y no todos los transitorios se han podido entender completamente. Por tanto, los análisis de seguridad de nuevos LMFR están basados fundamentalmente en métodos deterministas, al contrario que las aproximaciones modernas para reactores de agua ligera (LWR), que se benefician también de los métodos probabilistas. La aproximación más usada en los estudios de seguridad de LMFR es utilizar una variedad de códigos, desarrollados a base de distintas teorías, en busca de soluciones integrales para los transitorios e incluyendo incertidumbres. En este marco, los nuevos códigos para cálculos de mejor estimación ("best estimate") que no incluyen aproximaciones conservadoras, son de una importancia primordial para analizar estacionarios y transitorios en reactores rápidos. Esta tesis se centra en el desarrollo de un código acoplado para realizar análisis realistas en reactores rápidos críticos aplicando el método de Monte Carlo. Hoy en día, dado el mayor potencial de recursos computacionales, los códigos de transporte neutrónico por Monte Carlo se pueden usar de manera práctica para realizar cálculos detallados de núcleos completos, incluso de elevada heterogeneidad material. Además, los códigos de Monte Carlo se toman normalmente como referencia para los códigos deterministas de difusión en multigrupos en aplicaciones con reactores rápidos, porque usan secciones eficaces punto a punto, un modelo geométrico exacto y tienen en cuenta intrínsecamente la dependencia angular de flujo. En esta tesis se presenta una metodología de acoplamiento entre el conocido código MCNP, que calcula la generación de potencia en el reactor, y el código de termohidráulica de subcanal COBRA-IV, que obtiene las distribuciones de temperatura y densidad en el sistema. COBRA-IV es un código apropiado para aplicaciones en reactores rápidos ya que ha sido validado con resultados experimentales en haces de barras con sodio, incluyendo las correlaciones más apropiadas para metales líquidos. En una primera fase de la tesis, ambos códigos se han acoplado en estado estacionario utilizando un método iterativo con intercambio de archivos externos. El principal problema en el acoplamiento neutrónico y termohidráulico en estacionario con códigos de Monte Carlo es la manipulación de las secciones eficaces para tener en cuenta el ensanchamiento Doppler cuando la temperatura del combustible aumenta. Entre todas las opciones disponibles, en esta tesis se ha escogido la aproximación de pseudo materiales, y se ha comprobado que proporciona resultados aceptables en su aplicación con reactores rápidos. Por otro lado, los cambios geométricos originados por grandes gradientes de temperatura en el núcleo de reactores rápidos resultan importantes para la neutrónica como consecuencia del elevado recorrido libre medio del neutrón en estos sistemas. Por tanto, se ha desarrollado un módulo adicional que simula la geometría del reactor en caliente y permite estimar la reactividad debido a la expansión del núcleo en un transitorio. éste módulo calcula automáticamente la longitud del combustible, el radio de la vaina, la separación de los elementos de combustible y el radio de la placa soporte en función de la temperatura. éste efecto es muy relevante en transitorios sin inserción de bancos de parada. También relacionado con los cambios geométricos, se ha implementado una herramienta que, automatiza el movimiento de las barras de control en busca d la criticidad del reactor, o bien calcula el valor de inserción axial las barras de control. Una segunda fase en la plataforma de cálculo que se ha desarrollado es la simulació dinámica. Puesto que MCNP sólo realiza cálculos estacionarios para sistemas críticos o supercríticos, la solución más directa que se propone sin modificar el código fuente de MCNP es usar la aproximación de factorización de flujo, que resuelve por separado la forma del flujo y la amplitud. En este caso se han estudiado en profundidad dos aproximaciones: adiabática y quasiestática. El método adiabático usa un esquema de acoplamiento que alterna en el tiempo los cálculos neutrónicos y termohidráulicos. MCNP calcula el modo fundamental de la distribución de neutrones y la reactividad al final de cada paso de tiempo, y COBRA-IV calcula las propiedades térmicas en el punto intermedio de los pasos de tiempo. La evolución de la amplitud de flujo se calcula resolviendo las ecuaciones de cinética puntual. Este método calcula la reactividad estática en cada paso de tiempo que, en general, difiere de la reactividad dinámica que se obtendría con la distribución de flujo exacta y dependiente de tiempo. No obstante, para entornos no excesivamente alejados de la criticidad ambas reactividades son similares y el método conduce a resultados prácticos aceptables. Siguiendo esta línea, se ha desarrollado después un método mejorado para intentar tener en cuenta el efecto de la fuente de neutrones retardados en la evolución de la forma del flujo durante el transitorio. El esquema consiste en realizar un cálculo cuasiestacionario por cada paso de tiempo con MCNP. La simulación cuasiestacionaria se basa EN la aproximación de fuente constante de neutrones retardados, y consiste en dar un determinado peso o importancia a cada ciclo computacial del cálculo de criticidad con MCNP para la estimación del flujo final. Ambos métodos se han verificado tomando como referencia los resultados del código de difusión COBAYA3 frente a un ejercicio común y suficientemente significativo. Finalmente, con objeto de demostrar la posibilidad de uso práctico del código, se ha simulado un transitorio en el concepto de reactor crítico en fase de diseño MYRRHA/FASTEF, de 100 MW de potencia térmica y refrigerado por plomo-bismuto. ABSTRACT Long term sustainable nuclear energy scenarios envisage a fleet of Liquid Metal Fast Reactors (LMFR) for the Pu recycling and minor actinides (MAs) transmutation or combined with some accelerator driven systems (ADS) just for MAs elimination. Design and licensing of these innovative reactor concepts require accurate computational tools, implementing the knowledge obtained in experimental research for new reactor configurations, materials and associated systems. Although a number of fast reactor systems have already been built, the operational experience is still reduced, especially for lead reactors, and not all the transients are fully understood. The safety analysis approach for LMFR is therefore based only on deterministic methods, different from modern approach for Light Water Reactors (LWR) which also benefit from probabilistic methods. Usually, the approach adopted in LMFR safety assessments is to employ a variety of codes, somewhat different for the each other, to analyze transients looking for a comprehensive solution and including uncertainties. In this frame, new best estimate simulation codes are of prime importance in order to analyze fast reactors steady state and transients. This thesis is focused on the development of a coupled code system for best estimate analysis in fast critical reactor. Currently due to the increase in the computational resources, Monte Carlo methods for neutrons transport can be used for detailed full core calculations. Furthermore, Monte Carlo codes are usually taken as reference for deterministic diffusion multigroups codes in fast reactors applications because they employ point-wise cross sections in an exact geometry model and intrinsically account for directional dependence of the ux. The coupling methodology presented here uses MCNP to calculate the power deposition within the reactor. The subchannel code COBRA-IV calculates the temperature and density distribution within the reactor. COBRA-IV is suitable for fast reactors applications because it has been validated against experimental results in sodium rod bundles. The proper correlations for liquid metal applications have been added to the thermal-hydraulics program. Both codes are coupled at steady state using an iterative method and external files exchange. The main issue in the Monte Carlo/thermal-hydraulics steady state coupling is the cross section handling to take into account Doppler broadening when temperature rises. Among every available options, the pseudo materials approach has been chosen in this thesis. This approach obtains reasonable results in fast reactor applications. Furthermore, geometrical changes caused by large temperature gradients in the core, are of major importance in fast reactor due to the large neutron mean free path. An additional module has therefore been included in order to simulate the reactor geometry in hot state or to estimate the reactivity due to core expansion in a transient. The module automatically calculates the fuel length, cladding radius, fuel assembly pitch and diagrid radius with the temperature. This effect will be crucial in some unprotected transients. Also related to geometrical changes, an automatic control rod movement feature has been implemented in order to achieve a just critical reactor or to calculate control rod worth. A step forward in the coupling platform is the dynamic simulation. Since MCNP performs only steady state calculations for critical systems, the more straight forward option without modifying MCNP source code, is to use the flux factorization approach solving separately the flux shape and amplitude. In this thesis two options have been studied to tackle time dependent neutronic simulations using a Monte Carlo code: adiabatic and quasistatic methods. The adiabatic methods uses a staggered time coupling scheme for the time advance of neutronics and the thermal-hydraulics calculations. MCNP computes the fundamental mode of the neutron flux distribution and the reactivity at the end of each time step and COBRA-IV the thermal properties at half of the the time steps. To calculate the flux amplitude evolution a solver of the point kinetics equations is used. This method calculates the static reactivity in each time step that in general is different from the dynamic reactivity calculated with the exact flux distribution. Nevertheless, for close to critical situations, both reactivities are similar and the method leads to acceptable practical results. In this line, an improved method as an attempt to take into account the effect of delayed neutron source in the transient flux shape evolutions is developed. The scheme performs a quasistationary calculation per time step with MCNP. This quasistationary simulations is based con the constant delayed source approach, taking into account the importance of each criticality cycle in the final flux estimation. Both adiabatic and quasistatic methods have been verified against the diffusion code COBAYA3, using a theoretical kinetic exercise. Finally, a transient in a critical 100 MWth lead-bismuth-eutectic reactor concept is analyzed using the adiabatic method as an application example in a real system.

Magnetic Attitude Control System for a Small Satellite. Impact on the Thermal Performance

El principal objetivo de la tesis es estudiar el acoplamiento entre los subsistemas de control de actitud y de control térmico de un pequeño satélite, con el fin de buscar la solución a los problemas relacionados con la determinación de los parámetros de diseño. Se considera la evolución de la actitud y de las temperaturas del satélite bajo la influencia de dos estrategias de orientación diferentes: 1) estabilización magnética pasiva de la orientación (PMAS, passive magnetic attitude stabilization), y 2) control de actitud magnético activo (AMAC, active magnetic attitude control). En primer lugar se presenta el modelo matemático del problema, que incluye la dinámica rotacional y el modelo térmico. En el problema térmico se considera un satélite cúbico modelizado por medio de siete nodos (seis externos y uno interno) aplicando la ecuación del balance térmico. Una vez establecido el modelo matemático del problema, se estudia la evolución que corresponde a las dos estrategias mencionadas. La estrategia PMAS se ha seleccionado por su simplicidad, fiabilidad, bajo coste, ahorrando consumo de potencia, masa coste y complejidad, comparado con otras estrategias. Se ha considerado otra estrategia de control que consigue que el satélite gire a una velocidad requerida alrededor de un eje deseado de giro, pudiendo controlar su dirección en un sistema inercial de referencia, ya que frecuentemente el subsistema térmico establece requisitos de giro alrededor de un eje del satélite orientado en una dirección perpendicular a la radiación solar incidente. En relación con el problema térmico, para estudiar la influencia de la velocidad de giro en la evolución de las temperaturas en diversos puntos del satélite, se ha empleado un modelo térmico linealizado, obtenido a partir de la formulación no lineal aplicando un método de perturbaciones. El resultado del estudio muestra que el tiempo de estabilización de la temperatura y la influencia de las cargas periódicas externas disminuye cuando aumenta la velocidad de giro. Los cambios de temperatura se reducen hasta ser muy pequeños para velocidades de rotación altas. En relación con la estrategia PMAC se ha observado que a pesar de su uso extendido entre los micro y nano satélites todavía presenta problemas que resolver. Estos problemas están relacionados con el dimensionamiento de los parámetros del sistema y la predicción del funcionamiento en órbita. Los problemas aparecen debido a la dificultad en la determinación de las características magnéticas de los cuerpos ferromagnéticos (varillas de histéresis) que se utilizan como amortiguadores de oscilaciones en los satélites. Para estudiar este problema se presenta un modelo analítico que permite estimar la eficiencia del amortiguamiento, y que se ha aplicado al estudio del comportamiento en vuelo de varios satélites, y que se ha empleado para comparar los resultados del modelo con los obtenidos en vuelo, observándose que el modelo permite explicar satisfactoriamente el comportamiento registrado. ABSTRACT The main objective of this thesis is to study the coupling between the attitude control and thermal control subsystems of a small satellite, and address the solution to some existing issues concerning the determination of their parameters. Through the thesis the attitude and temperature evolution of the satellite is studied under the influence of two independent attitude stabilization and control strategies: (1) passive magnetic attitude stabilization (PMAS), and (2) active magnetic attitude control (AMAC). In this regard the mathematical model of the problem is explained and presented. The mathematical model includes both the rotational dynamics and the thermal model. The thermal model is derived for a cubic satellite by solving the heat balance equation for 6 external and 1 internal nodes. Once established the mathematical model of the problem, the above mentioned attitude strategies were applied to the system and the temperature evolution of the 7 nodes of the satellite was studied. The PMAS technique has been selected to be studied due to its prevalent use, simplicity, reliability, and cost, as this strategy significantly saves the overall power, weight, cost, and reduces the complexity of the system compared to other attitude control strategies. In addition to that, another control law that provides the satellite with a desired spin rate along a desired axis of the satellite, whose direction can be controlled with respect to the inertial reference frame is considered, as the thermal subsystem of a satellite usually demands a spin requirement around an axis of the satellite which is positioned perpendicular to the direction of the coming solar radiation. Concerning the thermal problem, to study the influence of spin rate on temperature evolution of the satellite a linear approach of the thermal model is used, which is based on perturbation theory applied to the nonlinear differential equations of the thermal model of a spacecraft moving in a closed orbit. The results of this study showed that the temperature stabilization time and the periodic influence of the external thermal loads decreases by increasing the spin rate. However, the changes become insignificant for higher values of spin rate. Concerning the PMAS strategy, it was observed that in spite of its extended application to micro and nano satellites, still there are some issues to be solved regarding this strategy. These issues are related to the sizing of its system parameters and predicting the in-orbit performance. The problems were found to be rooted in the difficulties that exist in determining the magnetic characteristics of the ferromagnetic bodies (hysteresis rods) that are applied as damping devices on-board satellites. To address these issues an analytic model for estimating their damping efficiency is proposed and applied to several existing satellites in order to compare the results with their respective in-flight data. This model can explain the behavior showed by these satellites.

Nonlinear analysis of a simple model of temperature evolution in a satellite

We analyze a simple model of the heat transfer to and from a small satellite orbiting round a solar system planet. Our approach considers the satellite isothermal, with external heat input from the environment and from internal energy dissipation, and output to the environment as black-body radiation. The resulting nonlinear ordinary differential equation for the satellite’s temperature is analyzed by qualitative, perturbation and numerical methods, which prove that the temperature approaches a periodic pattern (attracting limit cycle). This approach can occur in two ways, according to the values of the parameters: (i) a slow decay towards the limit cycle over a time longer than the period, or (ii) a fast decay towards the limit cycle over a time shorter than the period. In the first case, an exactly soluble average equation is valid. We discuss the consequences of our model for the thermal stability of satellites.