Study of Impact and Compression Damage on Asian Pears

Result of impact and compression tests on Chojuro, Twentieth Century, Tsu Li, and Ya Li varieties of Asian pears indicate that Chojuro pears are the firmest and most resistant to mechanical damage. At the time of harvest, Tsu Li and Ya Li pears could resist mechanical damage nearly as well as Chojuro pears, but they become more susceptible to bruising in cold storage. Twentieth Century pears are most sensitive to impact and compression bruising. Increased time in the ripening room produces more softening and increased bruise resistance of Chojuro and Twentieth Century pears than of Tsu Li and Ya Li pears.

Effects of skin characteristics on impact response and bruising of apples and pears

Skin properties have an important influence on impact parameters and bruising. Skin deformation at puncture (a measure of the turgidity of the fruit skin) is negatively correlated with bruise volume in Golden apples after cold storage.

Instrument for testing the impact response of different materials. Application to apples and pears

Based on two research projects, a device for testing the response to-impact of fruits and related materials has been designed and tested during the last three years. As it is not related directly to potatoes, this contribution focuses mainly on the principles of impact and static loading and on the description of the device, and the type of results obtained up to now in different fruits.

Impact damage on selected varieties of apples, pears and other fruits.

During the past years, different laboratory impact response studies have been carrj.ec out in following fruits: apples (2 varieties), pears (4 varieties), Asian or Nashi pears (4 varieties), melons (2 varieties), peaches (2 varieties) and avocados. The methodology of the tests is described, as well as the results and observations obtained in each group of tests. Impact response is compared to bruising susceptibility, bruise characteristics (appearance and structural features) and varietal and ripeness differences.

Potencial del cultivo de la chumbera (Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Miller) para la obtención de biocombustibles

El presente trabajo trata sobre el potencial del cultivo de chumbera (Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Miller) para la obtención de dos biocombustibles: bioetanol y biogás. Para lograr este objetivo se ha estudiado, por una parte, el empleo de procedimientos orientados a la producción de bioetanol no celulósico a partir de cladodios de chumbera, lo que ha dado como resultado rendimientos de entre 156 y 221 litros de etanol por cada tonelada de materia seca de biomasa, y, por otra, la obtención de biogás mediante la digestión anaeróbica de los mismos en régimen mesófilo, donde se han hallado rendimientos en torno a 198 m3 de metano por tonelada de materia seca. Una vez determinado el potencial de la materia prima se han diseñado procesos para una escala industrial que permitan la transformación de los cladodios de chumbera en ambos biocombustibles y se han determinado sus balances energéticos, los cuales han dado como resultado la autosuficiencia de ambos procesos, obteniéndose, además, un excedente térmico de 1.235 kcal L-1 de etanol producido, y en torno a 140 kep de energía total (térmica + eléctrica) por tonelada de materia seca empleada en la digestión anaeróbica. Por último se ha estimado el potencial de producción de ambos combustibles en un área apta para el cultivo de la chumbera. En concreto, este estudio se ha llevado a cabo para la provincia de Almería, elegida por tratarse de una zona con cierta tradición en el manejo de esta planta y presentar un clima semiárido mediterráneo. La superficie apta para el cultivo de la chumbera en esta provincia se ha estimado en 100.616 ha y el rendimiento medio del cultivo en 5 t MS ha-1 año-1. En el caso del bioetanol esto implicaría un potencial de producción en torno a 82.158 m3 año-1 que podrían dar lugar a la creación de dos macrodestilerías (con una producción de 100.000 L diarios) o de 49 microdestilerías (con 5.000 L diarios de producción). Si se optara por la transformación de la biomasa de chumbera en metano, podrían obtenerse 99,4 M de metros cúbicos, lo cual permitiría el establecimiento de 79 plantas de cogeneración de 500 kW cada una. ABSTRACT The present work deals with the potential of prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica (L) Mill.) biomass as a feedstock for bioethanol and biogas. In order to reach this objective different procedures aiming at the production of non-cellulosic bioethanol from cladodes were carried out; yields from156 to 221 litres of bioethanol per ton of dry matter were found. Mesophilic anaerobic digestion of cladodes was also studied and yields around 198 m3 of methane per ton of dry matter were reached. From these results, processes on an industrial scale were designed for both pathways of energy conversion of prickly-pear biomass and the respective energy balances were calculated. They resulted to be self-sufficient from an energetic point of view; the bioethanol pathway generated a thermal energy surplus of 1,235 kcal per litre of ethanol, while around 140 kep of total energy (heat + electricity) were obtained from the anaerobic digestion of one ton of dry cladodes. Finally, the potential production of both biofuels from prickly pear biomass was estimated for a specific area. The province of Almeria was chosen because of its climate conditions and the previous existence of prickly pear plantations. The area suitable for prickly pear cultivation in the province was estimated at a maximum of 100.616 ha, with an average yield of about 5 t DM ha-1 year-1. If prickly pear biomass were cropped for bioethanol in Almeria, the potential production of bioethanol could reach 82,158 m3 year-1, in either two macrodistilleries (100,000 L day-1) or 49 microdestilleries (5,000 L day-1). If the biogas pathway were preferred, 99. 4 Mm3 of methane could be reached and this would represent 79 CHP plants (500 kW each one).

Bruise susceptibility in pome fruits under different loading and storage conditions

Samples of "Golden" and "Granny Smith" apples and "Conference" and "Doyenne of Cornice" pears have been tested. A great effect of storage conditions has been detected for pear but not for apple varieties. Both apple cultivars show to be equally resistant to quasi-static and to dinamic loading while pear varieties show great differences. All these effects can be quantified in order to describe mathematically species and varieties behavior.

Fruit quality sensing:Post-harvest ripeness

Firmness sensing of selected varieties of apples, pears and avocado fruits has been developed using a nondestructive impact technique. In addition to firmness measurements, postharvest ripeness of apples and pears was monitored by spectrophotometric reflectance measurements, and that of avocadoes by Hunter colour measurements. The data obtained from firmness sensing were analyzed by three analytical procedures: principal component, correlation and regression, and stepwise discriminant analysis. A new software was developed to control the impact test, analyse the data, and sort the fruit into specified classes, based on the criteria obtained from a training procedure. Similar procedures were used to analyse the reflectance and colour data. Both sensing systems were able to classify fruits w i th good accuracy.

Actual state of the mechanization of harvest of fruits and vegetables in Spain.

A review of the actual methods of harvest of fruits and vegetables in Spain is made. Special emphasis is given to the main horticultural Spanish crops that can be harvested by machines like green, beans, green peas broad beans, tomatoes, lettuces and chufas, as vegetables, and olives almonds, cherries, apples pears apricots, etc. as fruits.

Impact parameters related to bruising in selected fruits.

Impact testing with an instrumented free-fallingmass (50.4 g) device was applied to three varities of pears and two varieties of apples, forincreasing ripeness stages and impact energy (2 to 20 cm drops). Impact parameters were studied in relation to bruise and to ripeness, establishing relations between them and with the different characteristics of the fruits.

Impact bruises in pomaceae fruits: Evaluation methods and structural features.

Using a laboratory impact tester, impacts were applied to fruits of different varieties of apples and pears. The response to impact was analized, and many parameters were recorded, to be correlated to bruise susceptibility and to ripeness changes. Different methods for the detection and evaluation of the bruised Area and its features were studied, using direct observation and various reactives. Different types of bruises were established.

Impact parameters in relation to bruising and other fruit properties.

Impact response in fruits, primarily appl.es and pears (Pomaceae fruits), has been studied during the last five years. Using a laboratory impact testing device and also free-fall tests of instrumented apples, a significant body of results has been established, relative to the parameters which best characterize the impact response of these materials, and to their correlation with bruise damage, variety and ripeness level of the fruits. Bruise damage, measured as the size and/or volume of the affected fruit tissue is related primarily to applied energy (i.e. mainly drop height) for a given variety at a given ripeness stage. The relevant impact response parameters are maximum deformation (DM), permanent deformation (DP), maximum impulse (IM), maximum impact force (FM), maximum value of the force/time slope during impact (F/T) and impact time (T). The effect of ripeness differences was also studied in selected varieties of pears, being the most relevant parameters: maximum force (FM) and F/T slope.

Sensing physical stage of fruits by their response to non destructive impacts.

Fruits of two varieties of both apples and pears were tested in the laboratory to measure their response to a small energy impact applied by an impact tester. Samples of fruits of increasing maturity were tested during several weeks. Non-destructive impacts and other destructive and non-destructive measurements of post-harvest ripeness were applied. A new software was created to control the impact test, calculate the eleven parameters, and sort out the fruit. This software needs a data base and may create new ones. The implementation of an on-line impact device for automatic detection of texture is being designed (patent pending).

Effect of impacting mass on firmness sensing of fruits.

There has been an increased interest in using impact techniques for sensing firmness of fruits and vegetables. When an impacter is used to impact a fruit, the impacting mass is an important parameter which affects both the impact signal and fruit damage. Results of theoretical analysis and tests conducted on two varieties of pears indicate that lowering the impacting mass results in amplifying the measured signal, reducing sensing errors, and minimizing damage to the fruit.

Factors influencing apple and pear physical properties and bruise susceptibility.

Fruit turgidity and firmness have shown to influence impact bruise susceptibility in apples and pears. Analysis of the impact response showed that stresses in the tissues are higher in turgid fruits, so they are more susceptible to bruising. A physical parameter, deformation at skin puncture, was able to detect fruit turgidity changes and showed to be related to bruise susceptibility.

New version of a laboratory impact device for firmness sensing of fruits.

Results of previous studies conducted by different researchers have shown that impact techniques can be used to evaluate firmness (Delwiche et al., 1989; Delwiche et al.;1996; Jaren et al., 1992; Ruiz Altisent et al., 1996). To impact the fruit with a small spherical impactor of known mass and radius of curvature and measure the acceleration of the impactor is a technique described by Chen et al. (1985) and used by several researchers for sensing fruit firmness (Jaren et al., 1992; Correa et al.; 1992). The advantages of this method vs. a force sensor that measures the force as a function of time is that the measured impact-acceleration response is independent of the fruit mass and is less sensitive to the variation in the radius of curvature of the fruit (Chen et al., 1996). Ruiz Altisent et al. (1993) developed and used a 50 g impactor with a 19 mm diameter spherical tip, dropping from different height for fruits (apples, pears, avocados, melons, peaches ...). Another impact device for firmness sensing of fruits was developed by Chen and Ruiz Altisent (1996). They designed and fabricated an experimental low-mass impact sensor for high-speed sensing of fruit firmness. The impactor consisted of a semi-spherical impacting tip attached to the end (near the centre of percussion) of a pivoting arm. Impact is done by swinging the impactor to collide with the fruit. It has been implemented for on-line use. In both devices a small accelerometer is mounted behind the impacting tip. Lateral impactor and vertical impactor have been used in laboratory and the results from non-destructive impact tests have contributed to standardise methods to measure fruit firmness: Barreiro (1992) compared impact parameters and results of Magness-Taylor penetration tests for apples, pears, apricots [and peaches; Agulheiro (1994) studied the behaviour of the impact parameters during seven weeks of cold storage of two melon varieties; Ortiz (1998) used low energy impact and NIR procedures to segregate non crispy, non firm and soft peaches. Steinmetz (1996) compared various non-destructive firmness sensors, based on sound, impact and micro-deformation.