Six not so easy pieces in intermediate band solar cell research

The concept of "intermediate band solar cell" (IBSC) is, apparently, simple to grasp. However, since the idea was proposed, our understanding has improved and we feel now that we can explain better some concepts than we initially introduced. Clarifying these concepts is important, even if they are well-known for the advanced researcher, so that efforts can be driven in the right direction from start. The six pieces of this work are: Does a miniband need to be formed when the IBSC is implemented with quantum dots?; What are the problems of each of the main practical approaches that exist today? What are the simplest experimental techniques to demonstrate whether an IBSC is working as such or not? What is the issue with the absorption coefficient overlap? and Mott's transition? What the best system would be, if any?

Evaluación del uso de paneles solares como elemento de sombreo en invernaderos

El objetivo principal de este trabajo experimental, es evaluar el uso de paneles solares como opción de elemento de sombreo en viveros, tanto de gran escala como de pequeña superficie. Esta opción podría elegirse tanto en el caso de no disponer de red de suministro eléctrico cercano así como en el caso de preferir no depender de una fuente de energía eléctrica exterior. Como hecho novedoso, se ha elegido paneles solares flexibles de capa fina y poco peso, que serían situados en la cubierta del invernadero. Dicha elección permite que los paneles se adapten a la forma de la cubierta, sea cual fuere.

El papel de la hidroelectricidad en el contexto de las energías renovables en España

En el artículo se discute el papel de la energía hidroeléctrica en el marco del sistema eléctrico español, donde existe una elevada penetración de energías no gestionables con una tendencia clara a aumentar en los próximos años. El desarrollo de nuevas centrales hidroeléctricas se basará probablemente en centrales reversibles. La energía hidroeléctrica es una tecnología madura y eficiente para el almacenamiento de energía a gran escala y contribuye por tanto de manera decisiva a la integración de fuentes renovables no gestionables. Los beneficios obtenidos con la operación punta-valle pueden ser insuficientes para compensar el coste de una nueva central. Sin embargo, los ingresos obtenidos pueden incrementarse sustancialmente mediante su participación en los servicios de ajuste del sistema. Ello requeriría un diseño apropiado del mercado eléctrico. La contribución de las centrales hidráulicas reversibles al balance producción-consumo puede extenderse a las horas valle utilizando, bien bombeo en velocidad variable o bien una configuración de cortocircuito hidráulico. La necesidad de mitigar los efectos hidrológicos aguas abajo de las centrales hidroeléctricas puede introducir algunas restricciones en la operación que limitaría de algún modo los servicios descritos más arriba. Sin embargo, cabe esperar que los efectos ambientales provocados por las centrales hidráulicas reversibles sean significativamente menores. In this paper the role of hydropower in electric power systems is discussed, in the framework of the Spanish system, where a high penetration of intermittent power sources exists, showing a clear trend to increase in next years. The development of new hydro power facilities will be likely based on pumped storage hydro power plants. Hydropower is a mature and efficient technology for large-scale energy storage and therefore represents a key contribution for the integration of intermittent power sources, such as wind or photovoltaic. The benefits obtained from load shifting may be insufficient to compensate the costs of a new plant. However, the obtained revenues can significantly increase through its contribution to providing ancillary services. This would require an appropriate design of the electricity market. The contribution of pumped storage hydro power plants to balancing services can be extended to off-peak hours, using either variable speed pumping or the hydraulic shortcircuit configuration. The need to mitigate hydrological effects downstream of hydro plants may introduce some operational constraints which could limit to some extent the services described above. However environmental effects caused by pumped storage hydro power plants are expected to be significantly smaller.

Analysis of the Iberian electricity forward market hedging efficiency

An assessment of the hedging performance in the Iberian Forward Electricity Market is performed. Aggregated data from the Portuguese and Spanish clearing houses for energy derivatives are considered. The hedging performance is measured through the ratio of the final open interest of a month derivatives contract divided by its accumulated cleared volume. The base load futures in the Iberian energy derivatives exchange show the lowest ratios due to good liquidity. The peak futures show bigger ratios as their reduced liquidity is produced by auctions fixed by Portuguese regulation. The base load swaps settled in the clearing house located in Spain show initially large values due to low registered volumes, as this clearing house is mainly used for short maturity (daily and weekly swaps). This hedging ratio can be a powerful oversight tool for energy regulators when accessing to all the derivatives transactions as envisaged by European regulation.

Low Voltage Ride-through in DFIG Wind Generators by Controlling the Rotor Current without Crowbars

Among all the different types of electric wind generators, those that are based on doubly fed induction generators, or DFIG technology, are the most vulnerable to grid faults such as voltage sags. This paper proposes a new control strategy for this type of wind generator, that allows these devices to withstand the effects of a voltage sag while following the new requirements imposed by grid operators. This new control strategy makes the use of complementary devices such as crowbars unnecessary, as it greatly reduces the value of currents originated by the fault. This ensures less costly designs for the rotor systems as well as a more economic sizing of the necessary power electronics. The strategy described here uses an electric generator model based on space-phasor theory that provides a direct control over the position of the rotor magnetic flux. Controlling the rotor magnetic flux has a direct influence on the rest of the electrical variables enabling the machine to evolve to a desired work point during the transient imposed by the grid disturbance. Simulation studies have been carried out, as well as test bench trials, in order to prove the viability and functionality of the proposed control strategy.

Characteristic study, its identification and self-tuned approach to control hydro-power plants

The water time constant and mechanical time constant greatly influences the power and speed oscillations of hydro-turbine-generator unit. This paper discusses the turbine power transients in response to different nature and changes in the gate position. The work presented here analyses the characteristics of hydraulic system with an emphasis on changes in the above time constants. The simulation study is based on mathematical first-, second-, third- and fourth-order transfer function models. The study is further extended to identify discrete time-domain models and their characteristic representation without noise and with noise content of 10 & 20 dB signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The use of self-tuned control approach in minimising the speed deviation under plant parameter changes and disturbances is also discussed.

Contribución a integración de sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados a la red: recurso solar y predicción de la generación

En los últimos años se ha producido un aumento constante en la potencia fotovoltaica instalada a nivel mundial. Este crecimiento, acompañado de crecimientos similares en el resto de energías renovables, está motivado por la necesidad de dar respuesta a varios de los retos que planteados al sector energético: creciente preocupación por los efectos en el medioambiente de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, entre los que cabe destacar el cambio climático (IPCC 2011); el inevitable agotamiento de algunas fuentes tradicionales de energía eléctrica, basadas en combustibles fósiles, que llevara aparejado en las próximas décadas un aumento en el coste asociado a producir energía eléctrica mediante estas fuentes como indican Bentley (2002), Gori (2007), Kjastard (2009), Owen (2010) y Hughes (2011), y la necesidad para algunos países de asegurar su independencia energética, factor especialmente crítico para los países europeos debido a su escasez en reservas naturales de combustibles fósiles. La energía solar fotovoltaica, al igual que el resto de energías renovables, proporciona energía eléctrica de manera limpia y segura y plantea soluciones a los problemas mencionados. Asimismo, las energías renovables también presentan beneficios sociales como la creación de empleo cualificado en actividades de ingeniería, fabricación, instalación y mantenimiento, así como en la investigación, desarrollo e innovación. Es por estos motivos que las energías renovables se han visto beneficiadas a lo largo de las últimas décadas de mecanismos favorables, subvenciones y primas a la producción, conducentes a su implantación y desarrollo. La Figura 1.1 muestra la evolución de la potencia total instalada a nivel mundial y su tasa de crecimiento del 2000 al 2012, de acuerdo con datos proporcionados por la Agencia Internacional de la Energía: IEA (2012a, 2013). Los datos incluidos en la Figura 1.1 solo incluyen a los países que pertenecen a la Agencia Internacional de la Energía: Alemania, Australia, Austria, Bélgica, Canadá, China, Corea, Dinamarca, España, Estados Unidos, Finlandia, Francia, Holanda, Israel, Italia, Japón, Malasia, México, Noruega, Portugal, Reino Unido, Suecia, Suiza y Turquía. La potencia instalada muestra un crecimiento de tipo exponencial, incrementándose cada año un 41,6% de media. A los 88,5 GWP de potencia fotovoltaica instalada en todos los países miembros de la IEA a finales de 2012 habría que añadir, siempre según la IEA (2013), 7 GWP adicionales repartidos en seis países que no pertenecen a este organismo: Republica Checa, Grecia, Bulgaria, Eslovaquia, Ucrania y Tailandia. Esta tendencia en la tasa de crecimiento se mantiene incluso en los últimos años del periodo cuando varios países han reducido los incentivos a las energías renovables. Como consecuencia de este crecimiento en algunos países la proporción de energía eléctrica total de origen fotovoltaico empieza a ser apreciable. Para los casos de España, Alemania e Italia, el porcentaje de energía eléctrica final producida sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados a la red (SFCR) fue, respectivamente, de 3,1% y 4,7% en 2012 y de 3,1% en 2011 en Italia. La potencia instalada, la energía producida y la demanda total en estos países desde el año 2006 al 2012, de acuerdo con REE (2012, 2012, 2013), BMU (2013) y TERNA (2013), se recoge en la Tabla 1.1. Para el caso de Italia se incluyen únicamente datos hasta el año 2011 por no encontrarse disponibles datos para 2012. A medida que el nivel de penetración de la energía solar fotovoltaica en los sistemas eléctricos aumenta la necesidad de que este tipo de energía se integre de manera efectiva en dichos sistemas aumenta. La integración efectiva de un generador en el sistema eléctrico requiere que su producción sea conocida de antemano para poder incluirlo en la planificación del sistema eléctrico con el objetivo de que la producción programada para los distintos generadores iguale a la demanda esperada. Esta planificación del sistema eléctrico se suele hacer a escala diaria. Asimismo, además de equilibrar la generación con la demanda esperada un generador eléctrico debe ser capaz de proporcionar servicios auxiliares al sistema eléctrico como compensación de desequilibrios entre generación y consumo, regulación de tensión o inyección de potencia reactiva, entre otros. Por ejemplo, los sistemas fotovoltaicos cuya potencia sea superior a 2 MWP deben contribuir en España desde el 2010 a garantizar la continuidad del suministro eléctrico frente a huecos de tensión (España, 2010), aplicándose a estos sistemas fotovoltaicos el mismo procedimiento de operación – PO 12.3, REE(2006) – que ya se aplicó en su día a los generadores eólicos (España, 2007). La energía fotovoltaica, junto a otras energías renovables como la eólica, ha sido considerada tradicionalmente una fuente de energía no regulable. En consecuencia, no ha sido tenida en cuenta por los operadores de los sistemas eléctricos como una fuente de energía fiable. Esta consideración de la fotovoltaica como fuente de energía no fiable se debe a su dependencia de las condiciones meteorológicas, radiación y temperatura, para producir energía. Si la producción de un sistema fotovoltaico pudiese conocerse con exactitud y con la suficiente antelación se facilitaría su integración en los sistemas eléctricos. Sin embargo, la mera predicción de cuanta energía producirá un sistema fotovoltaico, aun cuando esta predicción se haga sin error, puede no ser suficiente; la energía producida por el sistema fotovoltaico sigue estando limitada por las condiciones meteorológicas y no es posible regular esta producción de energía. Como ya se ha comentado, la capacidad por parte de un generador eléctrico de regular su potencia de salida, tanto anticipadamente como en tiempo real, es crucial a la hora de su integración en el sistema eléctrico.

SMArc: a proposal for a smart, semantic middleware architecture focused on Smart City energy management

Among the main features that are intended to become part of what can be expected from the Smart City, one of them should be an improved energy management system, in order to benefit from a healthier relation with the environment, minimize energy expenses, and offer dynamic market opportunities. A Smart Grid seems like a very suitable infrastructure for this objective, as it guarantees a two-way information flow that will provide the means for energy management enhancement. However, to obtain all the required information, another entity must care about all the devices required to gather the data. What is more, this entity must consider the lifespan of the devices within the Smart Grid—when they are turned on and off or when new appliances are added—along with the services that devices are able to provide. This paper puts forward SMArc—an acronym for semantic middleware architecture—as a middleware proposal for the Smart Grid, so as to process the collected data and use it to insulate applications from the complexity of the metering facilities and guarantee that any change that may happen at these lower levels will be updated for future actions in the system.

Modelling and forecasting fossil fuels, CO2 and electricity prices and their volatilities

In the current uncertain context that affects both the world economy and the energy sector, with the rapid increase in the prices of oil and gas and the very unstable political situation that affects some of the largest raw materials’ producers, there is a need for developing efficient and powerful quantitative tools that allow to model and forecast fossil fuel prices, CO2 emission allowances prices as well as electricity prices. This will improve decision making for all the agents involved in energy issues. Although there are papers focused on modelling fossil fuel prices, CO2 prices and electricity prices, the literature is scarce on attempts to consider all of them together. This paper focuses on both building a multivariate model for the aforementioned prices and comparing its results with those of univariate ones, in terms of prediction accuracy (univariate and multivariate models are compared for a large span of days, all in the first 4 months in 2011) as well as extracting common features in the volatilities of the prices of all these relevant magnitudes. The common features in volatility are extracted by means of a conditionally heteroskedastic dynamic factor model which allows to solve the curse of dimensionality problem that commonly arises when estimating multivariate GARCH models. Additionally, the common volatility factors obtained are useful for improving the forecasting intervals and have a nice economical interpretation. Besides, the results obtained and methodology proposed can be useful as a starting point for risk management or portfolio optimization under uncertainty in the current context of energy markets.

Mission profile based optimization of a wearable power system

A Wearable Power System (WPS) is a portable power source utilized primarily to power the modern soldier’s electronic equipment. Such a system has to satisfy output power demands in the range of 20 W...200 W, specified as a 4-day mission profile and has a weight limit of 4 kg. To meet these demands, an optimization of a WPS, comprising an internal combustion (IC) engine, permanent magnetic three-phase electrical motor/generator, inverter, Li-batteries, DC-DC converters, and controller, is performed in this paper. The mechanical energy extracted from the fuel by IC engine is transferred to the generator that is used to recharge the battery and provide the power to the electrical output load. The main objectives are to select the engine, fuel and battery type, to match the weight of fuel and the number of battery cells, to find the optimal working point of engine and to minimize the system weight. To provide the second output voltage level of 14 VDC, a separate DC-DC converter is connected between the battery and the load, and optimized for the specified mission profile. A prototype of the WPS based on the optimization presented in the paper results in a total system weight of 3.9 kg and fulfils the mission profile.

Performance metrics for small-signal stability assessment of DC-distributed power-system-architecture comparisons

The objective of this paper is to provide performance metrics for small-signal stability assessment of a given system architecture. The stability margins are stated utilizing a concept of maximum peak criteria (MPC) derived from the behavior of an impedance-based sensitivity function. For each minor-loop gain defined at every system interface, a single number to state the robustness of stability is provided based on the computed maximum value of the corresponding sensitivity function. In order to compare various power-architecture solutions in terms of stability, a parameter providing an overall measure of the whole system stability is required. The selected figure of merit is geometric average of each maximum peak value within the system. It provides a meaningful metrics for system comparisons: the best system in terms of robust stability is the one that minimizes this index. In addition, the largest peak value within the system interfaces is given thus detecting the weakest point of the system in terms of robustness.

Real time power plant simulation platform for training on Electrical Protections and Automatic Voltage Regulators

Electrical Protection systems and Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) are essential components of actual power plants. Its installation and setting is performed during the commissioning, and it needs extensive experience since any failure in this process or in the setting, may entails some risk not only for the generator of the power plant, but also for the reliability of the power grid. In this paper, a real time power plant simulation platform is presented as a tool for improving the training and learning process on electrical protections and automatic voltage regulators. The activities of the commissioning procedure which can be practiced are described, and the applicability of this tool for improving the comprehension of this important part of the power plants is discussed. A commercial AVR and a multifunction protective relay have been tested with satisfactory results.

Evaluation of the applicability of FRA for inter-turn fault detection in stator windings

In this paper, the applicability of the FRA technique is discussed as a method for detecting inter-turn faults in stator windings. Firstly, this method is tested in an individual medium-voltage stator coil with satisfactory results. Secondly, the tests are extended to a medium-voltage induction motor stator winding, in which inter-turn faults are performed in every coil end of one phase. Results of the frequency response in case of inter-turn faults are evaluated in both cases for different fault resistance values. The experimental setup is also described for each experiment. The results of the application of this technique to the detection of inter-turn faults justify further research in optimizing this technique for preventive maintenance.

Islanding Detection in Microgrids Using Harmonic Signatures

Islanding Detection in Microgrids Using Harmonic Signatures

AVR adjustment of Synchronous Generators in Weak Grids under Faulty Conditions.

In weak grids, an important problem with voltage stability and protections coordination of power plants exists. This problem appears because all the generation groups are connected to the same bus bar. As a result, if a fault occurs in any of the generation groups, or in the bus bar that connect them, the system voltage will have large oscillations. Hence, in weak grids the correct adjustment of AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) is critical. In this work an experimental study of differents AVR adjustments against fault in weak grids is described.