Computer planning of stereotactic iodine-125 seed brachytherapy for recurrent malignant gliomas

At St Thomas' Hospital, we have developed a computer program on a Titan graphics supercomputer to plan the stereotactic implantation of iodine-125 seeds for the palliative treatment of recurrent malignant gliomas. Use of the Gill-Thomas-Cosman relocatable frame allows planning and surgery to be carried out at different hospitals on different days. Stereotactic computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans are performed and the images transferred to the planning computer. The head, tumour and frame fiducials are outlined on the relevant images, and a three-dimensional model generated. Structures which could interfere with the surgery or radiotherapy, such as major vessels, shunt tubing etc., can also be outlined and included in the display. Catheter target and entry points are set using a three-dimensional cursor controlled by a set of dials attached to the computer. The program calculates and displays the radiation dose distribution within the target volume for various catheter and seed arrangements. The CT co-ordinates of the fiducial rods are used to convert catheter co-ordinates from CT space to frame space and to calculate the catheter insertion angles and depths. The surgically implanted catheters are after-loaded the next day and the seeds left in place for between 4 and 6 days, giving a nominal dose of 50 Gy to the edge of the target volume. 25 patients have been treated so far.

Progression of diffuse gliomas - from the first diagnosis to recurrence

Gliomas are the most frequent primary brain tumours. The cardinal features of gliomas are infiltrative growth pattern and progression from low-grade tumours to a more malignant phenotype. These features of gliomas generally prevent their complete surgical excision and cause their inherent tendency to recur after initial treatment and lead to poor long-term prognosis. Increasing knowledge about the molecular biology of gliomas has produced new markers that supplement histopathological diagnostics. Molecular markers are also used to evaluate the prognosis and predict therapeutic response. The purpose of this thesis is to study molecular events involved in the malignant progression of gliomas. Gliomas are highly vascularised tumours. Contrast enhancement in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reflects a disrupted blood-brain barrier and is often seen in malignant gliomas. In this thesis, 62 astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas and oligoastrocytomas were studied by MRI and immunohistochemistry. Contrast enhancement in preoperative MRI was associated with angiogenesis, tumour cell proliferation and histological grade of gliomas. Activation of oncogenes by gene amplification is a common genetic aberration in gliomas. EGFR amplification on chromosome 7p12 occurs in 30-40% of glioblastomas. PDGFRA, KIT and VEGFR2 are receptor tyrosine kinase genes located on chromosome 4q12. Amplification of these genes was studied using in situ hybridisation in the primary and recurrent astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas and oligoastrocytomas of 87 patients. PDGFRA, KIT or VEGFR2 amplification was found in 22% of primary tumours and 36% of recurrent tumours including low-grade and malignant gliomas. The most frequent aberration was KIT amplification, which occurred in 10% of primary tumours and in 27% of recurrent tumours. The expression of ezrin, cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and HuR was studied immunohistochemically in a series of primary and recurrent gliomas of 113 patients. Ezrin is a cell membrane-cytoskeleton linking-protein involved in the migration of glioma cells. The COX-2 enzyme is implicated in the carcinogenesis of epithelial neoplasms and is overexpressed in gliomas. HuR is an RNA-stabilising protein, which regulates the expression of several proteins including COX-2. Ezrin, COX-2 and HuR were associated with histological grade and the overall survival of glioma patients. However, in multivariate analysis they were not independent prognostic factors. In conclusion, these results suggest that contrast enhancement in MRI can be used as a surrogate marker for the proliferative and angiogenic potential of gliomas. Aberrations of PDGFRA, KIT and VEGFR2 genes, as well as the dysregulated expression of ezrin, COX-2 and HuR proteins, are linked to the progression of gliomas.

Genetic Studies Identify Critical Biomarkers and Refine the Classification of Malignant Gliomas

Gliomagenesis is driven by a complex network of genetic alterations and while the glioma genome has been a focus of investigation for many years; critical gaps in our knowledge of this disease remain. The identification of novel molecular biomarkers remains a focus of the greater cancer community as a method to improve the consistency and accuracy of pathological diagnosis. In addition, novel molecular biomarkers are drastically needed for the identification of targets that may ultimately result in novel therapeutics aimed at improving glioma treatment. Through the identification of new biomarkers, laboratories will focus future studies on the molecular mechanisms that underlie glioma development. Here, we report a series of genomic analyses identifying novel molecular biomarkers in multiple histopathological subtypes of glioma and refine the classification of malignant gliomas. We have completed a large scale analysis of the WHO grade II-III astrocytoma exome and report frequent mutations in the chromatin modifier, alpha thalassemia mental retardation x-linked (ATRX), isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and 2 (IDH1 and IDH2), and mutations in tumor protein 53 (TP53) as the most frequent genetic mutations in low grade astrocytomas. Furthermore, by analyzing the status of recurrently mutated genes in 363 brain tumors, we establish that highly recurrent gene mutational signatures are an effective tool in stratifying homogeneous patient populations into distinct groups with varying outcomes, thereby capable of predicting prognosis. Next, we have established mutations in the promoter of telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) as a frequent genetic event in gliomas and in tissues with low rates of self renewal. We identify TERT promoter mutations as the most frequently mutated gene in primary glioblastoma. Additionally, we show that TERT promoter mutations in combination with IDH1 and IDH2 mutations are able to delineate distinct clinical tumor cohorts and are capable of predicting median overall survival more effectively than standard histopathological diagnosis alone. Taken together, these data advance our understanding of the genetic alterations that underlie the transformation of glial cells into neoplasms and we provide novel genetic biomarkers and multi – gene mutational signatures that can be utilized to refine the classification of malignant gliomas and provide opportunity for improved diagnosis.

Radiolabeled inhibitors as probes for imaging mutant IDH1 expression in gliomas: Synthesis and preliminary evaluation of labeled butyl-phenyl sulfonamide analogs.

INTRODUCTION: Malignant gliomas frequently harbor mutations in the isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) gene. Studies suggest that IDH mutation contributes to tumor pathogenesis through mechanisms that are mediated by the neomorphic metabolite of the mutant IDH1 enzyme, 2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG). The aim of this work was to synthesize and evaluate radiolabeled compounds that bind to the mutant IDH1 enzyme with the goal of enabling noninvasive imaging of mutant IDH1 expression in gliomas by positron emission tomography (PET). METHODS: A small library of nonradioactive analogs were designed and synthesized based on the chemical structure of reported butyl-phenyl sulfonamide inhibitors of mutant IDH1. Enzyme inhibition assays were conducted using purified mutant IDH1 enzyme, IDH1-R132H, to determine the IC50 and the maximal inhibitory efficiency of the synthesized compounds. Selected compounds, 1 and 4, were labeled with radioiodine ((125)I) and/or (18)F using bromo- and phenol precursors, respectively. In vivo behavior of the labeled inhibitors was studied by conducting tissue distribution studies with [(125)I]1 in normal mice. Cell uptake studies were conducted using an isogenic astrocytoma cell line that carried a native IDH1-R132H mutation to evaluate the potential uptake of the labeled inhibitors in IDH1-mutated tumor cells. RESULTS: Enzyme inhibition assays showed good inhibitory potency for compounds that have iodine or a fluoroethoxy substituent at the ortho position of the phenyl ring in compounds 1 and 4 with IC50 values of 1.7 μM and 2.3 μM, respectively. Compounds 1 and 4 inhibited mutant IDH1 activity and decreased the production of 2-HG in an IDH1-mutated astrocytoma cell line. Radiolabeling of 1 and 4 was achieved with an average radiochemical yield of 56.6 ± 20.1% for [(125)I]1 (n = 4) and 67.5 ± 6.6% for [(18)F]4 (n = 3). [(125)I]1 exhibited favorable biodistribution characteristics in normal mice, with rapid clearance from the blood and elimination via the hepatobiliary system by 4 h after injection. The uptake of [(125)I]1 in tumor cells positive for IDH1-R132H was significantly higher compared to isogenic WT-IDH1 controls, with a maximal uptake ratio of 1.67 at 3 h post injection. Co-incubation of the labeled inhibitors with the corresponding nonradioactive analogs, and decreasing the normal concentrations of FBS (10%) in the incubation media substantially increased the uptake of the labeled inhibitors in both the IDH1-mutant and WT-IDH1 tumor cell lines, suggesting significant non-specific binding of the synthesized labeled butyl-phenyl sulfonamide inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate the feasibility of developing radiolabeled probes for the mutant IDH1 enzyme based on enzyme inhibitors. Further optimization of the labeled inhibitors by modifying the chemical structure to decrease the lipophilicity and to increase potency may yield compounds with improved characteristics as probes for imaging mutant IDH1 expression in tumors.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) expression in human malignant gliomas contributes to immune escape and tumour progression

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), which inhibits apoptosis and promotes angiogenesis, is expressed in cancers suppressing immune surveillance. Its biological role in human glioblastoma is, however, only poorly understood. We examined in-vivo expression of MIF in 166 gliomas and 23 normal control brains by immunohistochemistry. MIF immunoreactivity was enhanced in neoplastic astrocytes in WHO grade II glioma and increased significantly in higher tumour grades (III-IV). MIF expression was further assessed in 12 glioma cell lines in vitro. Quantitative RT-PCR showed that MIF mRNA expression was elevated up to 800-fold in malignant glioma cells compared with normal brain. This translated into high protein levels as assessed by immunoblotting of total cell lysates and by ELISA-based measurement of secreted MIF. Wild-type p53-retaining glioma cell lines expressed higher levels of MIF, which may be connected with the previously described role of MIF as a negative regulator of wild-type p53 signalling in tumour cells. Stable knockdown of MIF by shRNA in glioma cells significantly increased tumour cell susceptibility towards NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Furthermore, supernatant from mock-transfected cells, but not from MIF knockdown cells, induced downregulation of the activating immune receptor NKG2D on NK and CD8+ T cells. We thus propose that human glioma cell-derived MIF contributes to the immune escape of malignant gliomas by counteracting NK and cytotoxic T-cell-mediated tumour immune surveillance. Considering its further cell-intrinsic and extrinsic tumour-promoting effects and the availability of small molecule inhibitors, MIF seems to be a promising candidate for future glioma therapy.

GDF-15 contributes to proliferation and immune escape of malignant gliomas

Growth and differentiation factor (GDF)-15 is a member of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta family. GDF-15 is necessary for the maintenance of pregnancy but has also been linked to other physiologic and pathologic conditions.

Stratégies thérapeutiques pour le traitement des gliomes [Therapeutic strategies for the management of gliomas]

The management of gliomas remains challenging and requires a multidisciplinary approach that involves neurosurgeons, radiation therapists and oncologists. For patients with glioblastomas, progress has been made in recent years with the introduction of a combined modality treatment associating radiation therapy and concomitant chemotherapy with the novel alkylating agent temozolomide. This combination resulted in a significant prolongation of survival and increase in the number of patients with survival well beyond two years. Since then, interest in developing new agents in this disease has dramatically increased. In parallel, molecular markers, such as methylation status of MGMT or identification of the translocation of 1p and 19q in oligodendrogliomas have allowed to identify distinct subtypes with exquisite response to treatment or different prognosis. These developments have implications for the development of clinical trials of new potential drug treatments. In this article, we provide a review of the current management of low- and high-grade gliomas, including astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas and glioblastomas and provide an outlook into future potential therapies.

Intracellular drug delivery by sulfatide-mediated liposomes to gliomas

We described here a liposomal carrier system in which the targeting ligand was sulfatide, a glycosphingolipid known to bind several extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins whose expression was highly up-regulated in many tumors. In vitro experiments with human glioma cell lines demonstrated that robust intracellular uptake of the liposomes depended specifically on the presence of sulfatide as the key liposomal component. Significant amount of the liposomes remained largely intact in the cytoplasm for hours following their internalization. When anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) was encapsulated in such liposomes, most of the drug was preferably delivered into the cell nuclei to exert its cytotoxicity. Use of this drug delivery system to deliver DOX for treatment of tumor-bearing nude mice displayed much improved therapeutic effects over the free drug or the drug carried by polyethylene glycol (PEG)-grafted liposomes. Our results demonstrate a close link between effective intracellular uptake of the drug delivery system and its therapeutic outcome. Moreover, the sulfatide-containing liposomes (SCL) may represent an interesting ligand-targeted drug carrier for a wide spectrum of cancers in which sulfatide-binding ECM glycoproteins are expressed.

Advances in the treatment of malignant gliomas

Local control with surgery, radiation, and temozolomide chemotherapy remain the pillars of treatment for high-grade gliomas. Novel therapeutic strategies, including a variety of antiangiogenic agents, are under investigation. One of these agents, bevacizumab, was recently given accelerated approval by the US Food and Drug Administration as a single agent for recurrent glioblastoma. Recent trial results are generating important clinical questions regarding which patients to treat and when, and how best to monitor response. Encouraging results of recent studies are driving willingness to undertake aggressive treatment and to improve outcomes in this population. In this era, better understanding of biology, molecular aspects of cancer, and clinical trial methodology are crucial for clinicians. This review focuses on recent advances in the treatment malignant gliomas, especially antiangiogenic therapy.

Identificação das características cinéticas, expressão e localização das ecto-nucleotidases em cultura de astrócitos e linhagens de gliomas

Nucleotídeos extracelulares são envolvidos em diversos processos patofisiológicos no sistema nervoso central. Astrócitos são a maior fonte de nucleotídeos extracelulares da adenina no cérebro e também importantes alvos para as ações desses nucleotídeos via receptores purinérgicos P2. As ações induzidas pela sinalização purinérgica são reguladas pelas ecto-nucleotidases, que incluem membros da família das ecto-nucleosídeo trifosfato difosfoidrolase (E-NTPDase), ecto-5’-nucleotidase (ecto- 5’N) e ecto-adenosina deaminase (ADA). Culturas de astrócitos preparadas de hipocampo, córtex e cerebelo de ratos foram capazes de rapidamente converter ATP extracelular a ADP, que foi então hidrolizado a AMP. Os nucleosídeos tri-fosfatados foram hidrolisados preferencialmente aos difosfatados em todas as estruturas cerebrais. A análise cinética sugere que varias ecto-nucleotidases estão envolvidas nessa cascata enzimática. Análises preliminares de mRNA por PCR indicaram que astrócitos expressam múltiplos membros da família das NTPDases (NTPDase1 a NTPDase3 e NTPDase5/6). Por RT-PCR quantitativo (Real-time PCR), nós identificamos a NTPDase2 (CD39L1) como a NTPDase predominante expressa por astrócitos de hipocampo, córtex e cerebelo de ratos. Astrócitos do cerebelo apresentaram um padrão diferente para a hidrólise do AMP, com uma atividade específica 7 vezes maior, quando comparada com astrócitos de hipocampo e córtex. Uma maior expressão da ecto-5’N por RT-PCR foi identificada nessa estrutura. Não houve acúmulo de adenosina extracelular em todas as estruturas estudadas, indicando a presença de uma alta atividade ecto-adenosina deaminase em astrócitos. Dipiridamol aumentou significativamente os níveis de inosina no meio extracelular de astrócitos de hipocampo e córtex, mas não em astrócitos de cerebelo. Essas diferenças observadas podem indicar heterogeneidade funcional dos nucleotídeos no cérebro. Com o objetivo de investigar as enzimas envolvidas no catabolismo dos nucleotídeos como indicadoras da invasividade e agressividade dos gliomas malignos, nós avaliamos a degradação dos nucleotídeos extracelulares em cinco linhagens de gliomas diferentes e comparamos com astrócitos. Todas as linhagens de gliomas examinadas apresentaram baixas razões de hidrólise quando comparadas com astrócitos. Resultados preliminares sugerem que a falta de expressão da NTPDase1 e 2 possam ser responsáveis pela baixa hidrólise de ATP nas linhagens de gliomas. Considerando que o ATP é reconhecido como um fator mitogênico que induz a proliferação em células de gliomas, a substancial diminuição na hidrólise de ATP e ADP observadas em gliomas, sugere que alterações na via das ecto-nucleotidases pode representar um importante mecanismo associado com a transformação maligna desse tipo de tumor.

Estudo dos efeitos do ATP extracelular e das ecto-nucleotidases no crescimento de gliomas

Glioblastomas são a forma mais comum de tumores cerebrais primários e, apesar do tratamento, os pacientes com estes tumores têm um prognóstico muito ruim. Os nucleotídeos da adenina (ATP, ADP e AMP) e também a adenosina possuem muitas funções importantes em condições fisiológicas e patológicas em vários organismos. O ATP é uma importante molécula sinalizadora no SNC, e os nucleotídeos e nucleosídeos podem induzir a proliferação de linhagens celulares de gliomas. Na invasão dos gliomas dois mecanismos podem liberar ATP: a morte excitotóxica do tecido adjacente e a lesão causada pela ressecção do tumor, que é o tratamento de primeira linha nestes casos. Neste estudo foram observados os efeitos do ATP extracelular na citotoxicidade em linhagens celulares de glioma humano U138 e na linhagem C6 de ratos, comparado com culturas organotícias de hipocampo. A citotoxicidade do ATP (0.1mM, 0.5mM, 5mM) foi medida usando os ensaios de incorporação de iodeto de propídeo e ensaio da lactato desidrogenase. O ensaio de caspases foi realizado para identificar à morte apoptótica. Os resultados mostraram que as células de gliomas apresentam resistência a morte induzida pelo ATP quando comparados com o tecido normal. Altas concentrações de ATP (5mM) induziram à morte celular após 24 h de tratamento em culturas organotípicas, mas não nas linhagens de gliomas estudados. Os nucleotídeos são hidrolisados muito lentamente pelas linhagens de gliomas, o que foi confirmado pela baixa expressão das enzimas NTPDases quando comparado com astrócitos. Portanto, para testar o papel do ATP extracelular no mecanismo de implante e crescimento dos gliomas, um milhão destas células de gliomas foram injetadas em 3µl de DMEM no estriado direito de ratos Wistar, e foi testada a co-injeção da enzima apirase no tratamento dos gliomas implantados. Após 20 dias, os ratos foram mortos e o cérebro foi seccionado e corado com hematoxilina e eosina. Nossos resultados mostraram que os ratos que sofreram co-injeção de apirase tiveram uma redução significativa no tamanho do tumor e menor índice mitótico (p<0,05), bem como menor imunodetecção para Ki67, VEGF e CD31 quando comparado com os grupos controle e controle apirase. A medida da hidrólise enzimática dos nucleotídeos no soro pode contribuir no diagnóstico de lesão celular em muitas condições patológicas. Com o objetivo de avaliar a atividade enzimática da ATPase, ADPase e AMPase in vivo, amostras de soro foram coletadas vinte dias após o implante dos gliomas em ratos. Os ratos com indução de gliomas mostraram um aumento significativo na hidrólise de ATP, ADP e AMP quando comparado com os respectivos controles. O tratamento com o fármaco temozolomida e com 10% dimetil sulfoxida diminuiu a hidrólise dos nucleotídeos. Nenhum dos animais incluídos neste trabalho apresentaram alterações significativas na atividade das enzimas alanina aminotransferase, aspartato aminotransferase e fosfatase alcalina. Nossos dados indicam que o ATP pode ter uma função importante no crescimento do glioma, pois quando liberado pode induzir a morte celular do tecido normal ao redor do tumor, abrindo espaço para o rápido crescimento e invasão do tumor. As avaliações da hidrólise dos nucleotídeos da adenina no soro podem ajudar no acompanhamento da progressão dos tumores cerebrais.

Efeito dos antiinflamatórios não-esteróides sobre a proliferação celular e atividade das ecto-nucleotidases em linhagens de gliomas

Gliomas são os mais comuns e devastadores tumores primários do sistema nervoso central. Nucleotídeos extracelulares estão envolvidos em diversos processos patofisiológicos no sistema nervoso central. Os níveis dos nucleotídeos da adenina podem ser controlados por hidrólise através da ação de vários membros da família das ectonucleotidases. O AMP formado pelas NTPDases é hidrolizado até adenosina por ação da ecto-5’-nucleotidase (ecto-5’-NT). A enzima ciclooxigenase (COX) está surgindo como um novo alvo na prevenção e no tratamento do câncer, sendo que substanciais evidências epidemiológicas, experimentais e clínicas sugerem que os antiinflamatórios não-esteróides (AINEs) possuem propriedades anticâncer. Vários estudos têm demonstrado que certos AINEs causam efeitos antiproliferativos independentes da atividade da COX. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito dos AINEs em linhagens celulares de gliomas e os possíveis mecanismos envolvidos neste efeito e avaliar a influência da indometacina na cascata de enzimas que catalisam a interconversão dos nucleotídeos. Indometacina, acetaminofeno, sulfeto de sulindaco e NS-398 induziram uma inibição da proliferação celular de modo tempo e dose dependente. Indometacina causou uma redução significativa na viabilidade celular. Nenhum dos AINEs testados induziu ativação de caspase 3/7. O tratamento com indometacina diminuiu a percentagem de células na fase S, com um aumento relativo nas fases G0/G1 e/ou G2/M, indicando uma parada na progressão do ciclo celular. A exposição de células de glioma à indometacina causou um aumento nas hidrólises de AMP e ATP. Um aumento significativo nos níveis de mRNA da ecto-5’-NT/CD73 foi observado após tratamento com indometacina Estes resultados suportam a hipótese que o aumento na atividade da ecto-5’-NT está relacionado com a superexpressão do mRNA com possíveis alterações no catabolismo das purinas extracelulares. Os dados sugerem ainda que o receptor A3 e a enzima ecto-5’-NT estão envolvidos no efeito antiproliferativo da indometacina nas linhagens celulares de gliomas. Considerando que a via das ectonucleotidases pode representar um importante mecanismo associado com a transformação maligna dos gliomas, os AINEs podem ser clinicamente importantes na intervenção farmacológica deste tipo de tumor.

Screening de polimorfismos e análise comparativa de alterações no número de copias do gene tp53 em gliomas

As neoplasias astrocitárias correspondem a cerca de (60%) dos tumores do sistema nervoso central, sendo que atingem principalmente adultos numa fase altamente produtiva da vida e com evoluções pouco satisfatórias apesar dos tratamentos disponíveis. Um melhor entendimento de sua biologia molecular se faz necessário na tentativa de compreender sua evolução e melhor planejar e tratamento, assim como na busca de novas terapias. Este trabalho teve como objetivo analisar modificações no gene TP53 com relação ao número de cópias e polimorfismos nos éxons de 4 a 11, considerados hotspots para mutações. Um total de 14 amostras de diferentes graus de malignidade foram analisadas por experimentos de FISH interfásico com sondas loco-específicas do gene TP53 e centroméricas para o cromossomo 17, e também pela técnica de SSCP para o screening de polimorfismos dos éxons 4-10. Foram comparados os resultados obtidos entre tumores de graus I e II (benignos) com aqueles de graus III e IV (malignos). Os resultados referentes às sondas loco-específicas (gene TP53 e centrômero do cromossomo 17) mostraram que a ocorrência de deleções ou amplificações, apesar de importantes estatisticamente em relação aos núcleos com número de marcações normais, não apresentou correlação com idade, sexo ou grau de malignação. Entretanto, as alterações foram encontradas com maior freqüência nos paciente portadores de astrocitomas de grau intermediário (III). A técnica de SSCP revelou polimorfismos nos éxons 5, 7 e 10, e apesar de não estarem associados à malignidade tumoral, os casos polimórficos corresponderam aos pacientes com menor sobrevida após tratamentos, sugerindo, uma associação entre mutações nesses éxons e uma maior agressividade tumoral.